[PDF] Study Guide for Test Technician Test

1 Study Guide for Test Technician Test Test Number: 2774 Human Resources Performance Assessment Services Southern Califo...

Study Guide for

Test Technician Test Test Number: 2774

Human Resources Performance Assessment Services Southern California Edison An Edison International Company REV040313

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Introduction The 2774 Test Technician Test is a job knowledge test designed to cover the major knowledge areas necessary to perform the job. This Guide contains strategies to use for taking tests and a study outline, which includes knowledge categories, major job activities, and study references. Test Session It is important that you follow the directions of the Test Administrator exactly. If you have any questions about the testing session, be sure to ask the Test Administrator before the testing begins. During testing, you may NOT leave the room, talk, smoke, eat, or drink. Since some tests take several hours, you should consider these factors before the test begins. All cellular/mobile phones, pagers or other electronic equipment will NOT be allowed in the testing area. All questions on this test are multiple-choice or hot spot questions. Multiple choice questions have four possible answers. Hot spot questions have a picture, and you must click the correct spot on the picture to answer the question. All knowledge tests will be taken on the computer. For more information on this, please see the next section of this study guide on Computer Based Testing. The test has a four hour time limit and two parts. When you reach the end of Part I, you will have to submit your answers to reach Part II. You will not be able to change any of your answers from Part I after you press Submit. Once you have submitted Part I, you have the option to take a 10 minute break. If you chose not to take that break, you can proceed directly to Part II by pressing Submit on the break screen. A scientific calculator will be provided for you to use during the test. The calculator provided during the test session will be one of these models: Casio fx-250HC, Texas Instruments TI-30XA, Texas Instruments TI-36X You will NOT be able to bring or use your own calculator during testing. You will receive a Test Comment form so that you can make comments about test questions. Write any comments you have and turn it in with your test when you are done. Study Guide Feedback At the end of this Guide you have been provided with a Study Guide Feedback page. If a procedure or policy has changed, making any part of this Guide incorrect, your feedback would be appreciated so that corrections can be made.

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Computer Based Testing Taking an SCE knowledge test on the computer is simple. You do not need any computer experience or typing skills. You will only use the keyboard to enter your candidate ID and password. You’ll answer all questions by pressing a single button on the mouse. Log in Screen You will be seated at a testing station. When you are seated, the computer will prompt you to enter the candidate ID and password you received in your invitation e-mail. You MUST have your candidate ID and password or you will be unable to take the test. Once you have confirmed your identity by entering this information, you will see a list of tests available to you. Sample/Tutorial Before you start your actual test, a Sample/Tutorial Test is provided to help you become familiar with the computer and the mouse. From the list of exams that appear when you complete the log in, you will select Sample/Tutorial. You will have up to 10 minutes to take the Sample/Tutorial Test. The time you spend on this Sample Test does NOT count toward your examination time. Sample questions are included so that you may practice answering questions. In the Sample/Tutorial Test, you will get feedback on your answers. You will not receive feedback on your actual test. Example During the test, you may see several different types of items. Many of the questions will be multiple choice items. A few items will be pictures, where you’ll have to click the spot on the picture that answers the question. Those picture questions are known as “Hot Spot” questions. More information on each type is below. Overall Test Information When you begin the test, you can see the total time allowed for completion displayed at the top of the screen. You can scroll up to see that information at any time during the test. You can change your answers at any time during the test until the time runs out, or you click the “Submit” button. Once you click Submit, you can not change your answers.

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Multiple Choice Questions To answer each multiple choice question, you should move the mouse pointer over the circle (radio button) next to the answer of your choice, and click the left mouse button. A sample is shown below: 1. In order to answer each question, first read the question and determine the response that best answers the question. Put the mouse pointer directly over the circle corresponding to that response.

2. While the pointer is over the circle corresponding to the best answer, click the left mouse button.

3. The answer you selected should now have a green dot in the circle. If you need to select an alternate answer, simply move the pointer over that circle, and click again.

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Hot Spot Questions To answer each Hot Spot question, you should move the mouse pointer over the part of the image that best answers the question, and click the left mouse button. You will see a pointer appear in that spot. If you want to change your answer, simply move the mouse pointer to a new area on the picture and click again. The pointer will move to the new spot. A sample is shown below: 1. In order to answer each question, first read the question and determine the place on the image that best answers the question. The pointer that will indicate your answer can always be seen in the bottom left of the image. It looks like this:

Put the mouse pointer directly over the spot on the image you want to select, and click the left mouse button.

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2. The pointer will move from the bottom left of the image and appear over the spot you selected.

3. To change your answer, simply move the mouse pointer to the new spot, and click again. The pointer graphic will move to the new spot you’ve selected. In order for your answer to be considered be correct, the center of the pointer ( ) must be over the correct spot on the graphic.

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Test Taking Strategies Introduction The 2774 Test Technician Test contains multiple-choice questions and may also contain hot spot questions. The purpose of this section is to help you to identify some special features of a multiple-choice test and to suggest techniques for you to use when taking one. Your emotional and physical state during the test may determine whether you are prepared to do your best. The following list provides common sense techniques you can use before the test begins. Technique

Remarks

Be confident

If you feel confident about passing the test, you may lose some of your anxiety.

Think of the test as a way of demonstrating how much you know, the skills you can apply, the problems you can solve, and your good judgment capabilities.

Be punctual

Arrive early enough to feel relaxed and comfortable before the test begins.

Concentrate

Try to block out all distractions and concentrate only on the test. You will not only finish faster but you will reduce your chances of making careless mistakes.

If possible, select a seat away from others who might be distracting.

If lighting in the room is poor, sit under a light fixture.

If the test room becomes noisy or there are other distractions or irregularities, mention them to the Test Administrator immediately.

Budget your times

Pace yourself carefully to ensure that you will have enough time to complete all items and review your answers.

Read critically

Read all directions and questions carefully.

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Even though the first or second answer choice looks good, be sure to read all the choices before selecting your answer.

Make educated guesses

Make an educated guess if you do not know the answer or if you are unsure of it.

Changing answers

If you need to change an answer, be sure to erase your previous answer completely. On the computer, be sure that the new answer is selected instead of the old one.

Return to difficult questions

If particular questions seem difficult to understand, make a note of them, continue with the test and return to them later.

Double-check math calculations

Use scratch paper to double check your mathematical calculations.

Review

If time permits, review your answers.

Do the questions you skipped previously.

Make sure each answer bubble is completely filled in. Erase any stray marks on your answer sheet. When testing on the computer, make sure each multiple choice question has a green dot next to the correct answer.

Remember the techniques described in this section are only suggestions. You should follow the test taking methods that work best for you.

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Job Knowledge Categories and Study References Below are the major job knowledge areas (topics) covered on the 2774 Test Technician Test. Listed next to each knowledge category is the number of items on the exam that will measure that topic. You can use this information to guide your studying. Some exams also contain additional pretest items. Pretest items will appear just like all of the other items on your exam, but they will not affect your score. They are an essential part of ensuring the 2774 Test Technician Test remains relevant to successful performance of the job. There are a total of 98 items on the 2774 Test Technician Test and the passing score is 70%. A. Electrical Theory (57 items) Includes AC/DC theory, Ohm's law, circuit diagrams, electrical symbols, 3 phase power theory, and electrical terminology. B. Electronic Theory (10 items) Includes basic electronic theory, circuitry, electronic symbols, solid state theory, and knowledge of diodes, rectifiers, transistors, resonance, and oscillators. C. Mathematics (26 items) Includes algebra, geometry, trigonometry, phasoring, and other mathematics essential to conducting the standard tests. D. Test Instruments and Procedures (5 items) Refer to standard test instruments, and procedures, accuracy requirements and the use of electrical test instruments, meters, and tools. Study References The Test Technician Study Guide Workbook (published by SCE Power Production Training) can be found as an appendix to this document. Important Note: The knowledge categories described below are different from the knowledge categories that appear in the Test Technician Study Guide Workbook provided through SCE PPT. Please refer to the knowledge categories in this guide, not the knowledge categories in the workbook, for relevance to the test.

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Study Guide Feedback Please use this page to notify us of any changes in policies, procedures, or materials affecting this guide. Once completed, return to: Southern California Edison Human Resources - Performance Assessment Services G.O. 5, 1st Floor 1515 Walnut Ave. Rosemead, CA 91770

Test Name:

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2774 Test Technician Test

Comments

Appendix

Test Technician Study Guide Workbook

N O T I C E

These materials are protected by copyrights. It is illegal to reproduce these training materials or any part of them in any way, to share these materials or to loan or rent them to anyone else without permission.

7301 Fenwick Lane Westminster, CA 92683

Table of Contents

Study Guide Outline Study References Math (General Physics) Trigonometry Laws of Sines and Cosines Electronics Transformer and Diode Rectifier Circuits Special Purpose Diodes Ohm’s Law and Power Introduction to Parallel Circuits Series-Parallel Circuits Introduction to Kirchhoff’s Law Capacitors and the RC Time Constant Inductors and the L/R Time Constant Inductance and Transformers Transformers Inductive Reactance

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Study Guide Outline Job Knowledge Categories Below are the major job knowledge categories that are covered on the test. A. Electrical Theory Includes AC and DC theory, Ohm's law, wiring and circuit diagrams, electrical symbols, 3 phase power theory and electrical terminology B. Electronic Theory Includes basic electronic theory, circuitry, electronic symbols, solid state theory, and knowledge of diodes, rectifiers, transistors, resonance, and logic symbols C. Mathematics Includes algebra, geometry, trigonometry, and phasoring D. Test Instruments and Procedures Refer to standard test procedures and accuracy requirements and the use of electrical test instruments, meters, and tools. E. Equipment Knowledge Refers to knowledge of electrical equipment including protective relays, meters, recording instruments, supervisory control equipment, transformers, voltage regulators, synchronous condensers, power circuit breakers, carrier current equipment, and other electrical equipment tested by the Test Technician

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F. Safety Includes knowledge of safety procedures, electrical hazards, first aid, fire fighting, and safe operating procedures, including clearance procedures

Study References

Below is a combined listing of the study references for material covered on the test. The materials listed in this Guide are available from public/university libraries, general bookstores, university or technical bookstores. Department reference material (e.g., operating letters, on-line computer systems, etc.) again will depend on project. KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY A — ELECTRICAL THEORY Basic Electricity Bureau of Navy Personnel, Dover Publications Delmar’s Standard Textbook of Electricity Delmar Cengage Learning, by Stephen L. Herman Vector Analysis Industrial Press, Stroud and Booth KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY B — ELECTRONIC THEORY Basic Solid State Electronics Van Valkenburgh, Nooger & Neville. Inc Substation Training School

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Basic Electronics Bernard Grob, McGraw Hill Book Co. Electronic Principles Albert Paul Malvino, Glencoe Macmillan/McGraw-Hill

KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY C — MATHEMATICS Basic Mathematics For Electronics Nelson M. Cooke, McGraw Hill Book Co. Working with Numbers: Refresher Algebra Janies T. Shea, STECK-VAUGN Geometry: A Straightforward Approach Martin M. Zuckerman, Morton Publishing Co. Trigonometry the Easy Way Douglas Downing, Barron's Education Service KNOWLEDGE CATEGORY D — TEST INSTRUMENTS AND PROCEDURES Basic Electricity Bureau of Navy Personnel, Substation Training School Delmar’s Standard Textbook of Electricity Delmar Cengage Learning, by Stephen L. Herman

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Math (General Physics)

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Trigonometry

Trigonometry is the study of angles and the relationship between angles and the lines that form them. All trigonometry is based on a right-angled triangle. The most important application of trigonometry is the solution of triangles based on the sizes of the angles and the lengths of the sides. This lesson explains: • Sines • Cosines • Tangents

Objectives After successfully completing this lesson, you will be able to: 1. Define the sine, cosine, and tangent ratios. 2. Graph the sine and cosine functions. 3. Solve triangle problems using trigonometric functions.

Key Words

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Sin

—

Abbreviation of sine.

Cos

—

Abbreviation of cosine. Test Technician

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Tan

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—

Abbreviation of tangent.

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Sine The lengths of the sides of a right triangle are related to the size of the angle . This is the basis for trigonometric (trig) functions.

Figure 28. Right Triangle for Trig Functions The sides of the triangle in Figure 28 are labeled based on the angle about which you are talking, A or (theta) in this case. The side opposite is labeled “a.” The side next to or adjacent to is labeled “b.” The hypotenuse is still called the hypotenuse and is labeled “c.” The angle opposite the hypotenuse, or the right angle (90°), is labeled “C.” The ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse is called the sine of angle . Sine is abbreviated sin. sin

length length

of of

opposite

side

hypotenuse

or sin

a c

The reciprocal of sin , the length of the hypotenuse divided by the length of the opposite side, is called the cosecant, or CSC . If you know any two parts of the sine equation, you can easily calculate the third. If you know the sine of an angle and want to find the angle itself, you can write this as sin-1 or arcsin.

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If you calculate the value of sin for various s from 0° to 360°, you could plot them as in Figure 29. This is called a sine curve. Notice that sin is never greater than +1 or less than -1. The values of all trig functions for angles from 0° to 90° have been calculated and are listed in standard trig function tables. As with log tables, fractions of degrees can be interpolated.

Figure 29. Sine Curve Look at a sample problem: A plank 21 ft. long is used to roll a barrel onto a truck. If the truck bed is 5.9 ft. above the ground, what angle does the plank form with the ground? Solution:

sin

5 .9 21

5 .9

sin-1

sin-1 0.2809

From standard trig tables, or using a calculator with trig functions, sin-1 16.3° = 0.2807, which is very close to 0.2809. Therefore

16.3°

It is usually helpful to draw a simple diagram of problems.

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Cosine The ratio of the adjacent side to the hypotenuse is called the cosine of . Cosine is abbreviated cos. cos

length length

adjacent of

side

hypotenuse

or cos

b c

The reciprocal of the cos , the length of the hypotenuse divided by the length of the adjacent side, is called the secant, or sec . See Figure 28, repeated below.

Figure 28. Right Triangle for Trig Functions The angle whose cosine is known is written cos-1 or arccos. A plot of cos for from 0° to 360° looks like Figure 30. Notice that cos is never larger than +1 or less than -1.

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Figure 30. Cosine Curve Look at a sample problem: How high will a 35 ft. long ladder reach up a vertical wall if it makes an angle of 18.2° with the wall? Solution:

cos 18.2° = b

b 35

= 35 cos 18.2°

From standard trig tables, or using a calculator with trig functions, cos 18.2° = 0.9500. b

= 35 (0.95) = 33.25 ft.

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Tangent The ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side is called the tangent of . Tangent is abbreviated tan. tan

length

opposite

side

length

adjacent

side

or cos

O A

The reciprocal of tan , the length of the adjacent side divided by the length of the opposite side, is called the cotangent, or cot . See Figure 28, repeated below.

Figure 28. Right Triangle for Trig Functions The angle whose tangent is known is written tan-1 or arctan. The tangents of 90° and 270° are undefined.

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Look at a sample problem: The shadow of a stack is 293 ft. long when the sun is at 41° elevation. Find the height of the stack. Solution:

tan 41° a=

a 293

293 tan 41°

From standard trig tables, or using a calculator with trig functions, tan 41° = 0.8693. a

= 293 (0.8693) = 254.7 ft.

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Laws of Sines and Cosines

The solutions of all triangles can be grouped into cases according to the information given about the angles and sides.

Section 1. Law of Sines The Law of Sines states that in any triangle ABC, the sides are proportional to the sines of the opposite angles. See Figure 31 for an example of a typical triangle ABC.

Figure 31. Typical Triangle ABC

therefore

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sin A

d b

b sin A

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sin B

d a

a sin B

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Since

d = d, it is obvious then that to solve for b: b sin A

a sin B

Dividing by sin A b sin sin

A A

= =

a sin sin

B A

a sin sin

B A

Dividing by sin B b

sin B

a sin B sin A sin B

a sin A

The Law of Sines is normally written as shown below: a sin A

sin B

c sin C

Derivations can be obtained from the above relationships as follows: a sin A

sin B

a sin B = b sin A sin A =

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a sin b

c sin C

b sin C = c sin B sin B =

b sin C c

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c sin C

a sin A

a sin C = c sin A sin C =

c sin A a

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Section 2. Law of Cosines The Law of Cosines states that in any triangle ABC, the square of any side is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides diminished by twice the product of the other two sides and the cosine of the included angle. See Figure 31, repeated below. Using the Pythagorean Theorem in the left triangle: b2

d2 + (AD)2

Figure 31. Typical Triangle ABC In the triangle on the right side: sin B then

cos B

a sin B

DB =

AB - DB =

DB a

a cos B

Then

AD =

c - a cos B

and

= d2 + (AD)2

= a2 sin2 B + (c2 -2ac cos B + a2 cos2 B)

= a2 sin2 B + c2 -2ac cos B + a2 cos2 B

= a2 (sin2 B + cos2B) + c2 - 2ac cos B

= (a sin B)2 + (c - a cos B)2

It can be shown from the Pythagorean Theorem that: (sin2 B + cos2 B) = 1 Therefore: April, 2010 Page 16

= a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B Test Technician

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The relationships for finding other values can be derived in the above manner to yield: a2

= b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A

= a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B

= a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C

To determine unknown angles, the above relationships can be manipulated to yield the following equations: To find angle C: c2

= a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C

= a2 + b2 - c2 - 2ab cos C

2ab cos C = a2 + b2 - c2 2 ab

cos C

2 ab

cos C

2 ab b

2 ab

Similarly, cos A cos B

= =

2 bc a

2 ac

NOTE: In general, the Law of Sines is used when two angles and one side or two sides and an angle opposite one of them are known, while the Law of Cosines is used when two sides and the included angle or three sides are known. Practice problems using the trig functions are in the next section.

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Practice Problems Use standard trig table functions or, if you have one, a calculator with trig functions, to solve these problems. Answers are at the end of the module. 1. A road makes an angle of 7.4° with the horizontal. Find the increase in elevation (in feet) if you drive one mile. (One mile = 5280 ft.)

2. A 30 ft. ladder is placed against a vertical wall so that the foot of the ladder is 6.5 ft. from the wall. What angle does the ladder make with the ground? How high on the wall does the ladder reach?

3. Given the following, find the angles:

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a. arcsin 0.1564

b. arccos 0.301

c. arctan 0.419

d. sin-1 0.0262

e. tan-1 0.0115

f. tan-1 2.05

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4. A platform is 10 ft. above floor level. A ramp is to be built from the floor to the platform. If the ramp is to make an angle with the floor of 14°, how far from the platform must the ramp start? How long must the ramp be?

4. A tower is braced by a cable fastened 15 ft. below the top and to an anchor that is 65 ft. from the base of the tower. If the brace makes an angle of 70° with the ground, how high is the tower?

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Electronics

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Transformer and Diode Rectifier Circuits

A rectifier diode is ideally a closed switch when forward-biased and an open switch when reverse-biased. Because of this, it is useful for converting alternating current to direct current. This chapter discusses three basic rectifier circuits called the half-wave rectifier, the full-wave rectifier, and the bridge rectifier.

The Input Transformer Power companies in the United States supply a nominal line voltage of 115 V rms at a frequency of 60 Hz. The actual voltage coming out of a power outlet may vary from 105 V to 125 V rms, depending on the time of day, locality, and other factors. Recall that the relation between the rms value and the peak value of a sine wave is given by Vrms = 0.707Vp

(4-1)

This equation says that the rms voltage equals 70.7 percent of the peak voltage. Recall what rms value means. This is the equivalent dc voltage that would produce the same amount of power over one complete cycle. Basic Equation Line voltage is too high for most of the devices used in electronics equipment. This is why a transformer is commonly used in almost all electronics equipment. This transformer steps the ac voltage

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down to lower levels that are more suitable for use with devices like diodes and transistors.

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Figure 4-1 shows an example of a transformer. The left coil is called the primary winding and the right coil is called the secondary winding. The number of turns on the primary winding is N1, and the number of turns on the secondary winding is N2. The vertical lines between the primary and secondary windings indicate that the turns are wrapped on an iron core.

Figure 4-1 Unloaded Transformer

Figure 4-2 Loaded Transformer

With this type of transformer, the coefficient of coupling k approaches one, which means tight coupling exists. In other words, all the flux produced by the primary winding cuts through the secondary winding. The voltage induced in the secondary winding is given by V2

N2 N

(4-2)

The voltages in this equation may be either rms or peak voltages. Just be consistent and use rms for both, or peak for both. Step-Up Transformer When the secondary winding has more turns than the primary winding, more voltage is induced in the secondary than in the primary. In other words, when N2/N1 is greater than one, the transformer is referred to as a step-up transformer. If N1 = 100 turns and N2 = 300 turns, the same flux cuts through three times as many turns in the secondary as in the primary winding. This is why the secondary voltage is three times as large as the primary voltage. Step-Down Transformer When the secondary winding has fewer turns than the primary winding, less voltage is induced in the secondary than in the primary. In this case, the turns ratio, N2:N1, is less than one, and the transformer is called a step-down transformer. If N1 = 100 turns and N2 = 50 turns, the same flux cuts through half as many turns in Power Production Training

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the secondary as in the primary winding, and the secondary voltage is half the primary voltage. Effect on Current Figure 4-2 shows a load resistor connected across the secondary winding. Because of the induced voltage across the secondary winding, a current exists. If the transformer is ideal (k = 1 and no power is lost in the windings or the core), the output power equals the input power: P2 = P1 or V2I2 = V1I1 We can rearrange the foregoing equation as follows: I1

V 2

But Eq. (4-2) implies that V2/V1 = N2/N1. Therefore, I1

or N2

I 1

I 2

(4-3)

An alternative way to write the foregoing equation is N 1

I 2

I 1

(4-4)

Notice the following. For a step-up transformer, the voltage is stepped up but the current is stepped down. On the other hand, for a step-down transformer, the voltage is stepped down but the current is stepped up.

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Example 4–1 Suppose the voltage from a power outlet is 120 V rms. What is the peak voltage? Solution Using algebra, we can rewrite Eq. (4-1) in this equivalent form: V rm s

0 .7 0 7

Now, substitute the rms voltage and calculate the peak voltage: Vp

120V

170V

0 .7 0 7

This tells us that the sinusoidal voltage out of the power outlet has a peak value of 170 V. Example 4–2 A step-down transformer has a turns ratio of 5:1. If the primary voltage is 120 V rms, what is the secondary voltage? Solution Divide the primary voltage by 5 to get the secondary voltage: V2

120V

24 V

Example 4–3 Suppose a step-down transformer has a turns ratio of 5:1. If the secondary current is 1 A rms, what is the primary current? Solution With Eq. (4-3), I1

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0 .2 A

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As a check on this answer, use your common sense as follows, This is a step-down transformer, which means the current is stepped up going from primary to secondary, equivalent to saying the current is stepped down as we go from the secondary to the primary. This means the primary current is five times smaller than the secondary current. Whenever possible, you should check that your answers are logical because it is easy to make a mistake with equations.

The Half-Wave Rectifier The simplest circuit that can convert alternating current to direct current is the half-wave rectifier, shown in Fig. 4-3. Line voltage from an ac power outlet is applied to the primary winding of the transformer. Usually, the power plug has a third prong to ground the equipment. Because of the turns ratio, the peak voltage across the secondary winding is V p2

V p1

Recall the dot convention used with transformers. The dotted ends of a transformer have the same polarity of voltage at any instant in time. When the upper end of the primary winding is positive, the upper end of the secondary winding is also positive. When the upper end of the primary winding is negative, the upper end of the secondary winding is also negative. Here is how the circuit works. On the positive half cycle of primary voltage, the secondary winding has a positive half sine wave across it. This means the diode is forward-biased. However, on the negative half cycle of primary voltage, the secondary winding has a negative half sine wave. Therefore, the diode is reverse-biased. If you use the ideal-diode approximation for an initial analysis, you will realize that the positive half cycle appears across the load resistor, but not the negative half cycle. For instance, Fig. 4-4 shows a transformer with a turns ratio of 5:1. The peak primary voltage is

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V p1

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120V

170V

0 .7 0 7

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Figure 4-3 Half-wave Rectifier

Figure 4-4 5:1 Turns Ratio

The peak secondary voltage is 170V

V p2

34V

With the ideal-diode approximation, the load voltage has a peak value of 34 V. Figure 4-5 shows the load voltage. This type of waveform is called half-wave signal because the negative half cycles have been clipped off or removed. Since the load voltage has only a positive half cycle, the load current is unidirectional, meaning that it flows only in one direction. Therefore, the load current is a pulsating direct current. It starts at zero at the beginning of the cycle, then increases to a maximum value at the positive peak, then decreases to zero where it sits for the entire negative half cycle.

Figure 4-5 Half-wave Signal Period The frequency of the half-wave signal is still equal to the line frequency, which is 60 Hz. (In Europe, line frequency is 50 Hz.) Recall that the period, T, equals the reciprocal of the frequency. Therefore, the half-wave signal has a period of T

60 H z

0 .0 1 6 7 s

1 6 .7 m s

This is the amount of time between the beginning of a positive half cycle and the start of the next positive half cycle. This is what your April, 2010 Page 28

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would measure if you looked at a half-wave signal with an oscilloscope. DC or Average Value If you connect a dc voltmeter across the load resistor of Figure 4-5, it will indicate a dc voltage of Vp/ , which may be written as Vdc = 0.318Vp

(4-5)

where Vp is the peak value of the half-wave signal across the load resistor. For instance, if the peak voltage is 34 V, the dc voltmeter will read Vdc = 0.318(34 V) = 10.8 V This dc voltage is sometimes called the “average” value of the halfwave signal because the voltmeter reads the average voltage over one complete cycle. The needle of the voltmeter cannot follow the rapid variations of the half-wave signal, so the needle settles down on the average value, which is 31.8 percent of the peak value. (The 31.8 percent can be proved with calculus.) Approximations Because the secondary voltage is much greater than the knee voltage, using the second approximation will improve the analysis only slightly. If we use the second approximation, the half-wave signal has a peak of 33.3 V. Furthermore, since the bulk resistance of a 1N4001 is only 0.23 compared to a load resistance of 1 k , there is no increase in accuracy when using the third approximation. In conclusion, either the ideal diode or the second approximation is adequate in analyzing this circuit. Example 4–4 In Europe, a half-wave rectifier has an input voltage of 240 V rms with a frequency of 50 Hz. If the step-down transformer has a turns ratio of 8:1, what is the load voltage? Solution You can divide 240 V by 0.707 to get the answer. Here is an alternative way to get the peak voltage. Since the rms voltage is twice as large as previous examples, the peak voltage is twice as large as before: Power Production Training

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Vpl = 2(170 V) = 340 V Because of the 8:1 step down, the secondary voltage has a peak value of 340V

V p2

4 2 .5 V

Ignoring the diode drop means that the load voltage is a half-wave signal with a peak value of 42.5 V. The period of the rectified output voltage is slightly longer: T

0 .0 2 s

20m s

50H z

This is what you would measure with an oscilloscope.

The Full-Wave Rectifier Figure 4-6 shows a “full-wave rectifier.” Notice the grounded center tap on the secondary winding. Because of this center tap, the circuit is equivalent to two half-wave rectifiers. The upper rectifier handles the positive half cycle of secondary voltage, while the lower rectifier handles the negative half cycle of secondary voltage. In other words, D1 conducts on the positive half cycle and D2 conducts on the negative half cycle. Because of this, the rectified load current flows during both half cycles. Furthermore, this load current flows in one direction only.

Figure 4–6 Full-wave Rectifier For instance, Fig. 4-7 shows a transformer with a turns ratio of 5:1. The peak primary voltage is still equal to April, 2010 Page 30

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Figure 4–7 Example of Full-wave Rectifier V p1

120V

170V

0 .7 0 7

The peak secondary voltage is V p2

170V

34 V

Because of the grounded center tap, each half of the secondary winding has a sinusoidal voltage with a peak of only 17 V. Therefore, the load voltage has an ideal peak value of only 17 V instead of 34 V. This factor- of-two reduction is a characteristic of all full-wave rectifiers. It is a direct result of using a grounded center tap on the secondary winding. Figure 4-8 shows the load voltage. This type of waveform is called a full-wave signal. It is equivalent to inverting or flipping the negative half cycles of a sine wave to get positive half cycles. Because of Ohm's law, the load current is a full-wave signal with a peak value of I

17V p

17m A

Figure 4–8 Full-wave Signal Power Production Training

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DC or Average Value If you connect a dc voltmeter across the load resistor of Fig. 4-7, it will indicate a dc voltage of 2Vp/ , which is equivalent to Vdc = 0.636Vp

(4-6)

where V p is the peak value of the half-wave signal across the load resistor. For instance, if the peak voltage is 17 V, the dc voltmeter will read Vdc = 0.636(17 V) = 10.8 V This dc voltage is the average value of the full-wave signal because the voltmeter reads the average voltage over one complete cycle. Output Frequency The frequency of the full-wave signal is double the input frequency. Why? Recall how a complete cycle is defined. A waveform has a complete cycle when it repeats. In Fig. 4-8, the rectified waveform begins repeating after one half cycle of the primary voltage. Since line voltage has a period, T1 , of T1

60H z

0 .0 1 6 7 s

The rectified load voltage has a period, 1 6 .7 m s

1 6 .7 m s

, of

8 .3 3 m s

The frequency of the load voltage therefore equals f2

8 .3 3 m s

120H z

This says the output frequency equals two times the input frequency. In symbols, f out

2 f in

(4-7)

This doubling of the frequency is a characteristic of all full-wave rectifiers. It is a direct result of using two diodes, one to rectify the positive half cycle of input voltage and the other to rectify the April, 2010 Page 32

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negative half cycle of input voltage. Visually, the effect is to invert the negative half of the input voltage to get a full-wave signal. Again, notice the following about the use of diode approximations. Because the secondary voltage is much greater than the knee voltage, the second approximation results in a full-wave output voltage with a peak value of 16.3 V instead of 17 V, Once more, the small bulk resistance of a 1N4001 has almost no effect. In conclusion, either the ideal diode or the second approxima-tion is adequate in analyzing most full-wave circuits. The only time you would consider using the third approximation is when the load resistance is small. Example 4–5 Suppose the full-wave rectifier of Fig, 4-7 has an input voltage of 240 V rms with a frequency of 50 Hz. If the step-down transformer has a turns ratio of 8:1, what is the load voltage? Solution The peak primary voltage is the same as the previous example:: V p1

340V

The peak secondary voltage has the same peak value as before: V p2

4 2 .5 V

The center tap reduces this voltage by a factor of 2. In other words, the entire secondary winding has a sine wave across it with a peak value of 42.5 V. Therefore, each half of the secondary winding has a sine wave with only half this peak value, or approximately 21.2 V. Ignoring the diode drop means that the load voltage is a full-wave signal with a peak value of 21.2 V. Also, the rectified output signal has a frequency of twice the input frequency. In this case, the output frequency is f = 2(50 Hz) = 100 Hz

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The Bridge Rectifier Figure 4-9 shows a bridge rectifier. By using four diodes instead of two, this clever design eliminates the need for a grounded center tap. The advantage of not using a center tap is that the rectified load voltage is twice what it would be with the full-wave rectifier.

Figure 4–9 Bridge Rectifier Here is how it works. During the positive half cycle of line voltage, diodes D2 and D3 conduct; this produces a positive half cycle across the load resistor. During the negative half cycle of line voltage, diode D1 and D4 conduct; this produces another positive half cycle across the load resistor. The result is a full-wave signal across the load resistor. For instance, Fig. 4-10 shows a transformer with a turns ratio of 5:1. The peak primary voltage is still equal to V p1

120V

170V

0 .7 0 7

Figure 4–10 Example of Bridge Rectifier April, 2010 Page 34

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Figure 4-11 Full-wave Signal The peak secondary voltage is still V p2

170V

34V

Because the full secondary voltage is applied to the conducting diodes in series with the load resistor, the load voltage has an ideal peak value of 34 V, twice that of the full-wave rectifier discussed earlier. Figure 4-11 shows the ideal load voltage. As you see, the shape is identical to that of a full-wave rectifier. Therefore, the frequency of the rectified signal equals 120 Hz, twice the line frequency. Because of Ohm's law, the load current is a full-wave signal with a peak value of Ip

34V 1k

34mA

There is a new factor to consider when using the second approximation with a bridge rectifier: there are two conducting diodes in series with the load resistor during each half cycle, Therefore, we must subtract two diode drops instead of only one, This means the peak voltage with the second approximation is Vp, = 34 V - 2(0.7 V) = 32.6 V The additional voltage drop across the second diode is one of the few disadvantages of the bridge rectifier, Also, there are two bulk resistances in series with the load resistance. But the effect is again negligible with the circuit values shown in Fig, 4-10. Unless you are designing a bridge rectifier, you will not normally use the third approximation because the bulk resistance is usually much smaller than the load resistance.

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Most designers feel that having two diode drops and two bulk resistances is only a minor disadvantage. The advantages of the bridge rectifier include a full-wave output, an ideal peak voltage equal to the peak secondary voltage, and no center tap on the secondary winding. These advantages have made the bridge rectifier the most popular rectifier design. Most equipment uses a bridge rectifier to convert the ac line voltage to a dc voltage suitable for use with semiconductor devices. Example 4–6 Suppose the bridge rectifier of Fig. 4-9 has an input voltage of 240 V rms with a frequency of 50 Hz. If the step-down transformer has a turns ratio of 8:1, what is the load voltage? Solution The peak primary voltage is the same as the previous example: V p1

340V

The peak secondary voltage has the same peak value as before: Vp2

4 2 .5 V

This time, the entire secondary voltage is across two conducting diodes in series with the load resistor. Ignoring the diode drop means that the load voltage is a full-wave signal with a peak value of 42.5 V. Also, the frequency of the rectified output voltage is 100 Hz.

The Capacitor-Input Filter The load voltage out of a rectifier is pulsating rather than steady. For instance, look at Fig. 4-11. Over one complete output cycle, the load voltage increases from zero to a peak, then decreases back to zero. This is not the kind of dc voltage needed for most electronic circuits. What is needed is a steady or constant voltage similar to what a battery produce. To get this type of rectified load voltage, we need to use a “filter.”

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Half-wave Filtering The most common type of filter is the capacitor-input filter shown in Fig. 4-12. To simplify the initial discussion of filters, we have represented an ideal diode by a switch. As you can see, a capacitor has been inserted parallel with the load resistor. Before the power is turned on, the capacitor is uncharged; therefore, the load voltage is zero. During the first quarter cycle of the secondary voltage, the diode is forward-biased. Ideally, it looks like a closed switch. Since the diode connects the secondary winding directly across the capacitor, the capacitor charges to the peak voltage, V p .

Figure 4–12 Capacitor-input Filter Just past the positive peak, the diode stops conducting, which means the switch opens. Why? Because the capacitor has V p . volts across it. Since the secondary voltage is slightly less than Vp, the diode goes into reverse bias. With the diode now open, the capacitor discharges through the load resistance. But here is the key idea behind the capacitor-input filter: by deliberate design, the discharging time constant (the product of RL and C) is much greater than the period, T, of the input signal. Because of this, the capacitor will lose only a small part of its charge during the off time of the diode as shown in Fig. 4-13a.

Figure 4–13 (a) Half-wave Filtering (b) Full-wave Filtering

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When the source voltage again reaches its peak, the diode conducts briefly and recharges the capacitor to the peak voltage. In other words, after the capacitor is initially charged during the first quarter cycle, its voltage is approximately equal to the peak secondary voltage. This is why the circuit is sometimes called a peak detector. The load voltage is now almost a steady or constant dc voltage. The only deviation from a pure dc voltage is the small ripple caused by charging and discharging the capacitor. The smaller the ripple is, the better. One way to reduce this ripple is by increasing the discharging time constant, which equals RLC. Full-Wave Filtering Another way to reduce the ripple is to use a full-wave rectifier or bridge rectifier; then the ripple frequency is 120 Hz instead of 60 Hz. In this case, the capacitor is charged twice as often and has only half the discharge time (see Fig. 4-13b). As a result, the ripple is smaller and the dc output voltage more closely approaches the peak voltage. From now on, our discussion will emphasize the bridge rectifier driving a capacitor-input filter because this is the most commonly used circuit. Brief Conduction of Diode In the unfiltered rectifiers discussed earlier, each diode conducts for half a cycle. In the filtered rectifiers we are now discussing, each diode conducts for much less than half a cycle. When the power switch is first turned on, the capacitor is uncharged. Ideally, it takes only a quarter of a cycle to charge the capacitor to the peak secondary voltage. After this initial charging, the diodes turn on only briefly near the peak and are off during the rest of the cycle. In terms of degrees, the diodes turn on for only a couple of degrees during each cycle (half a cycle is 1 8 0 ) . An Important Formula Whether you are troubleshooting, analyzing, or designing, you have got to know how to estimate the size of the ripple. Normally, the ripple is small compared to the peak secondary voltage. For most applications, the ripple is considered small when it is less than 10 percent of the load voltage. For instance, if the load voltage is I5 V, the ripple in most filtered rectifiers will be less than 1.5 V peakto-peak. April, 2010 Page 38

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Here is the formula for ripple expressed in terms of easily measured circuit values: VR

where

I fC

(4-8)

= peak-to-peak ripple voltage

I = dc load current f = ripple frequency C = capacitance The proof of Eq. (4-8) is too lengthy and complicated to show in this book. But the derivation assumes that the peak-to-peak ripple is less than 20 percent of the load voltage. Beyond this point, you cannot use Eq. (4-8) without encountering a lot of error. But as was already discussed earlier, the whole point of the capacitor-input filter is to produce a steady or constant dc voltage. For this reason, most designers deliberately select circuit values to keep the ripple less than 10 percent of the load voltage. In the circuits you encounter, you will find that the ripple is usually less than 10 percent of the load voltage. DC Voltage To be successful in electronics, you have to learn the following basic idea: approximations are the rule, not the exception. Why? Because electronics is not an exact science like pure mathematics. The idea that you must always get exact answers is a false idea, a left-brain trap. For most of the work in electronics, approximate answers are adequate and even desirable. The situation is like an artist painting a picture. The best artist starts with the largest brush when beginning a painting. The artist then switches to a medium-sized brush to improve the picture, and, finally, may use the smallest brush to get the finest detail. No good artist ever uses a small brush all of the time. The three diode approximations are like an artist’s brushes. You should start with the ideal diode to get the big picture. In many cases (trouble shooting, for instance), this will be all you need. Often, you will want to improve your analysis by using the second approximation (a lot of everyday work is done with this one). Power Production Training

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Finally, the third approximation may be best in some situations (if the circuit uses 1 percent resistors, for example).

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First Approximation With the foregoing in mind, here is how the diode approximations affect the value of the load voltage. For an ideal diode and no ripple, the dc load voltage out of a filtered bridge rectifier equals the peak secondary voltage: V dc

V p2

This is what you want to remember when you are trouble-shooting or making a preliminary analysis of a filtered bridge rectifier. Second Approximation With the second approximation of a diode, we have to allow for the 0.7 V across each diode. Since there are two conducting diodes in series with the load resistor, the dc load voltage with no ripple out of a filtered bridge rectifier is V dc

V p2

1 .4 V

Third Approximation In the third approximation, two bulk resistances are in the charging path of the capacitor. This complicates the analysis because the diode conducts briefly only near the peak. Fortunately, bulk resistances of rectifier diodes are typically less than 1 . Because of this, they usually have little or no effect on the load voltage. Unless you are designing a filtered bridge rectifier, you will not need to consider the effect of bulk resistance. (If you are designing the circuit, you will need to use advanced mathematics because you have to deal with an exponential function. The alternative is to build the circuit and arrive at circuit values by experiment. The main rule here is to keep the load resistance as large as possible compared to the bulk resistance.) There is one more improvement that we can use. We can include the effect of the ripple as follows: V d c ( w ith r ip p le )

V d c ( w ith o u tr ip p le )

VR 2

The idea here is to subtract half the peak-to-peak ripple to refine the answer slightly. Since peak-to-peak is usually less than 10 percent, the improvement in the answer is less than 5 percent. Power Production Training

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A Basic Guideline The resistors used in typical electronic circuits have tolerances of 5 percent. Sometimes, you will see precision resistors of 1 percent used in critical applications. And sometimes, you will see resistors of 10 percent used. But if we take 5 percent as the usual tolerance, then one guideline for selecting an approxima-tion is this: Ignore a quantity if it produces an error of less than 5 percent. This means we can use the ideal diode if it produces less than 5 percent error. If the ideal diode results in 5 percent or more error, switch to the second approximation. Also, ignore the effect of ripple when it is less than 10 percent of the load voltage. (Remember: the peak-to-peak ripple is divided by two before subtracting from the load voltage. Therefore, a 10 percent ripple produces only a 4 percent error in load voltage.) The foregoing guideline will be of some help in deciding which approximation to use, but don't lean on this guideline too heavily. You may have a situation where a 5 percent guideline is not suitable, Remember the artist's brushes. The job may require a smaller or larger brush. It is impossible to give you a rule for every situation because real life is too messy and has too many exceptions. But don't be discouraged. That's what makes electronics more interesting than accounting. Use the basic guideline given here, but be ready to abandon it if you feel it doesn't apply to your situation. Example 4–7 Suppose a bridge rectifier has a dc load current of 10 mA and a filter capacitance of 470 F. What is the peak-to-peak ripple out of a capacitor-input filer? Solution Use Eq. ( 4-8) to get VR

10m A

0 .1 1 7 V

(1 2 0 H z ) ( 4 7 0 F )

This assumes the input frequency is 60 Hz,. which is the normal line frequency in the United States.

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Example 4–8 Assume we have a filtered bridge rectifier with a line voltage of 120 V rms, a turns ratio of 9.45, a filter capacitance of 470 F, and a load resistance of 1 k . What is the dc load voltage? Solution Start by calculating the rms secondary voltage: 120V

1 2 .7 V

9 .4 5

This is what you would measure with an ac voltmeter connected across the secondary winding. Next, calculate the peak secondary voltage: V p2

1 2 .7 V

18V

0 .7 0 7

With an ideal diode and ignoring the ripple, the dc load voltage equals the peak secondary voltage: V dc

18V

This answer would be adequate if you were troubleshooting a circuit like this. The dc load voltage is the approximate value you would read with a dc voltmeter across the load resistor. If there were trouble in such a circuit, the dc voltage probably would be much lower than 18 V. The second approximation improves the answer by including the effect of the two-diode voltage drops: V dc

18V

1 .4 V

1 6 .6 V

This is more accurate, so let us use it in the remaining calculations. To calculate the ripple, we need the value of dc load current: I

1 6 .6 V

1 6 .6 m A

Now, we can use Eq. (4-8):

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1 6 .6 m A

0 .2 9 4 V

(1 2 0 H z ) ( 4 7 0 F )

This is the peak-to-peak ripple and is what you would see if you looked at the load voltage with the ac input of an oscilloscope. This ripple has little effect on the dc load voltage: V d c ( w ith r ip p le ) = 1 6 .6 -

0 .2 9 4 V

1 6 .5 V

This gives you the basic idea of how to calculate the dc load voltage and ripple.

Voltage Multipliers A voltage multiplier is two or more peak detectors or peak rectifiers that produce a dc voltage equal to a multiple of the peak input voltage ( 2V p , 3V p , 4V p , and so on). These power supplies are used for high voltage/low current devices like cathode-ray tubes (the picture tubes in TV receivers, oscilloscopes, and computer displays). Half-Wave Voltage Doubler Figure 4-15a is a voltage doubler. At the peak of the negative half cycle, D1 is forward-biased and D2 is reverse-biased. Ideally, this charges C1 to the peak voltage, Vp, With the polarity shown in Fig. 4-15b. At the peak of the positive half cycle, D1 is reverse-biased and D2 is forward-biased. Because the source and C1 are in series, C2 Will try to charge toward 2Vp. After several cycles, the voltage across C2 Will equal 2Vp, as shown in Fig. 4-15c. By redrawing the circuit and connecting a load resistance, we get Fig. 1-15d. Now it's clear that the final capacitor discharges through the load resistor. As long as RL is large, the output voltage equals 2Vp (ideally). That is, provided the load is light (long time constant), the output voltage is double the peak input voltage. This input voltage normally comes from the secondary winding of a transformer.

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For a given transformer, you can get twice as much output voltage as you get from a standard peak rectifier. This is useful when you are trying to produce high voltages (several hundred volts or more). Why? Because higher secondary voltages result in bulkier transformers. At some point, a designer may prefer to use voltage doublers instead of bigger transformers. The circuit is called a half-wave doubler because the output capacitor, C2, is charged only once during each cycle. As a result, the ripple frequency is 60 Hz. Sometimes you will see a surge resistor in series with C1.

Figure 4-15 Half-wave Voltage Doubler

Figure 4-16 Full-wave Voltage Doubler Full-Wave Voltage Doubler Figure 4-16 shows a full-wave voltage doubler. On the positive half cycle of the source, the upper capacitor charges to the peak voltage with the polarity shown. On the next half cycle, the lower capacitor

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charges to the peak voltage with the indicated polarity. For a light load, the final output voltage is approximately 2Vp. The circuit is called a full-wave voltage doubler because one of the output capacitors is being charged during each half cycle. Stated another way, the output ripple is 120 Hz. This ripple frequency is an advantage because it is easier to filter. Another advantage of the full-wave doubler is that the PIV rating of the diodes need only be greater than Vp. The disadvantage of a full-wave doubler is the lack of a common ground between input and output. In other words, if we ground the lower end of the load resistor in Fig. 4-16, the source is Floating. In the half- wave doubler of Fig. 4-15d, grounding the load resistor also grounds the source, an advantage in some applications.

Study Aids The following study aids will help to reinforce the ideas discussed in this chapter. For best results, use these study aids within 6 hours of reading the earlier material. Then review these study aids a week later and a month later to ensure that the concepts remain in your long-term memory.

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Summary Sec. 4-1 The Input Transformer The input transformer is usually a step-down transformer. In this type of transformer, the voltage is stepped down and the current is stepped up. One way to remember this is by remem-bering that the output power equals the input power in a lossless transformer. Sec. 4-2 The Half-wave Rectifier The half-wave rectifier has a diode in series with a load resistor. The load voltage is a half-wave rectified sine wave with a peak value approximately equal to the peak secondary voltage. The dc or average load voltage equals 31.8 percent of the peak load voltage. See. 4-3 The Full-wave Rectifier The full-wave rectifier has a center-tapped transformer with two diodes and a load resistor. The load voltage is a full-wave rectified sine wave with a peak value approximately equal to half of the peak Secondary voltage. The dc or average load voltage equals 63.6 percent of the peak load voltage. The ripple frequency equals two times the input frequency. See. 44 The Bridge Rectifier The bridge rectifier has four diodes. The load voltage is a full-wave rectified sine wave with a peak value approximately equal to peak secondary voltage. The de or average load voltage equals 63.6 percent of the peak load voltage. The ripple frequency equals two times the line frequency. Sec, 4-5 The capacitor-input Filter This is a capacitor across the load resistor, The idea is to charge the capacitor to the peak voltage and let it supply current to the load when the diodes are nonconducting. With a large capacitor, the ripple is small and the load voltage is almost a pure dc voltage.

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See. 4-6 Calculating Other Quantities In a full-wave or bridge rectifier, the diode current is half the load current and the peak inverse voltage equals the peak secondary voltage. In any kind of rectifier, the primary current approximately equals the load power divided by the primary voltage. See. 4-7 Surge Current Because the filter capacitor is uncharged before the power is turned on, the initial charging current is quite high. If the filter capacitor is less than 1000 F, the surge current is usually too brief to damage the diodes. See. 4-8 Troubleshoot The basic measurements you can make on a rectifier circuit include a floating ac voltmeter across the secondary winding to measure the rms secondary voltage, a dc voltmeter across the load resistor to measure the dc load voltage, and an oscilloscope across the load resistor to measure the peak-to-peak ripple. Sec, 4-9 Reading a Data Sheet The three most important specifications on the data sheet of a diode are the peak reverse voltage, the maximum diode current, and the maximum surge current.

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Vocabulary In your own words, explain what each of the following terms means . Keep your answers short and to the point. If necessary, verify your answer by rereading the appropriate discussion or by looking at the end-of-book Glossary.

bridge rectifier

peak value

capacitor-input filter

rectifier diode

dc value

ripple

full-wave rectifier

rms value

half-wave rectifier

step-down transformer

line voltage

surge current

peak inverse voltage

Important Equations The following formulas are useless if you don't know what they mean in words. Suggestions: Look at each formula, then read the words to find out what the formula means. Your chances of learning and remembering are much better if you concentrate on words rather than formulas: Eq. 4–1 RMS Voltage Vrms = .707Vp This equation relates the heating effect of a dc voltage to an ac voltage. In effect, it converts a sine wave with a peak value of Vp to a dc voltage with a value of Vrms. It says a sine wave with a peak value of Vp produces the same amount of heat or power as a dc voltage with a value of Vrms. The magic number 0.707 comes from a calculus derivation. There’s not much else you can do here except memorize the relation. Power Production Training

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Eq. 4-5 DC Voltage from a Half-wave Rectifier Vdc = 0.318Vp One of the things you can do with calculus is work out the average value of time-varying signal. If you really want to know where the number 0.318 comes from, you will have to learn calculus. Otherwise, just memorize the equation. It says the dc or average value of a half-wave rectified sine wave equals .318 percent of the peak voltage. Eq. 4-6 DC Voltage from a Full-wave Rectifier Vdc = 0.636 VP Because the fill-wave signal has twice as many cycles as a half-wave signal, the average voltage is twice as much. The question says that the dc voltage equals 63.6 percent of the peak voltage of the fullwave rectified sine wave. Eq. 4-7 DC Frequency from Full-wave Voltage fout = 2fin This applies to full-wave and bridge rectifiers. It says the ripple frequency equals two times the line frequency. If line frequency is 60 Hz, the ripple frequency is 120 Hz. Very important for troubleshooting. Remember it. Eq. 4-8 DC Ripple out of Capacitor-Input Filter VR =

I FC

This equation is the key to the value of ripple, something a troubleshooter or designer needs to know. It says that the peak-topeak ripple equals the dc load current divided by the ripple frequency times the filter capacitance. Eq. 4-9 DC Diode Current ID = 0.5IL This applies to full-wave and bridge rectifiers. The equation says that the dc current in any diode equals half the dc load current.

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Eq. 4-10 DC Peak Inverse Voltage PIV = Vp2 This applies to full-wave and bridge rectifiers. It says that the peak inverse voltage across a non conducting diode equals the peak secondary voltage.

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Student Assignments Questions The following may have more than right answer. Select the best answer. This is the one that is always true, or covers more situations, or fits the context, etc. 1. If N1/N2 = 2, and the primary voltage is 120 V, what is the secondary voltage? a.

0 Vc.

40 V

36 V

60 V

2. In a step-down transformer, which is larger? a. Primary voltage

Neither

b. Secondary voltage

No answer possible

3. A transformer has a turns ratio of 4:1. What is the peak secondary voltage if 115 V rms is applied to the primary winding? a.

40.7 V

163 V

64.6 V

170 V

4. With a half-wave rectified voltage across the load resistor, load current flows for what part of a cycle? a.

180°

360

5. Suppose line voltage may be as low as 105 V rms or as high as 125 rms in a half-wave rectifier. With a 5:1 step-down transformer, the maximum peak load voltage is closest to a.

21 V

29.6 V

25 V

35.4 V

6. The voltage out of a bridge rectifier is

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Half-wave signal

Bridge-rectified signal d.

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Full-wave signal Sinewave

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If the line voltage is 115 V rms, a turns ratio of 5:1 means the rms secondary voltage is closest to a. 15 V

30 V

b. 23 V

35 V

What is the peak load voltage in a full-wave rectifier if the secondary voltage is 20 V rms? a.

14.1 V

0.7 V

28.3 V

We want a peak load voltage of 40 V out of a bridge rectifier. What is the approximate rms value of secondary voltage? a.

28.3 V

14.4 V

56.6 V

10. With a full-wave rectified voltage across the load resistor, load current flows for what part of a cycle? a.

180

360

11. What is the peak load voltage out of a bridge rectifier for a secondary voltage of 15 V rms? (Use second approximation.) a.

9.2 V

19.8 V

15 V

24.3 V

12. If line frequency is 60 Hz, the output frequency of a half-wave rectifier is a.

30 Hz

120 Hz

60 Hz

240 Hz

13. If line frequency is 60 Hz, the output frequency of a bridge rectifier is a.

30 Hz

120 Hz

60 Hz

240 Hz

14. With the same secondary voltage and filter, which has the most ripple? a. Power Production Training

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Bridge rectifier April, 2010 Page 53

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Full-wave rectifier

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Impossible to say

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15. With the same secondary voltage and filter, which produces the least load voltage? a.

Half-wave rectifier

Bridge rectifier

Full-wave rectifier

Impossible to say

16. If the filtered load current is 10 mA, which of the following has a diode current of 10 mA? a.

Half-wave rectifier

Bridge rectifier

Full-wave rectifier

Impossible to say

17. If the load current is 5 mA and the filter capacitance is 1000 what is the peak-to-peak ripple out of a bridge rectifier? a.

21.3 pV

21.3 mV

56.3 nV

41.7 mV

18. The diodes in a bridge rectifier each have a maximum de current rating of 2 A. This means the de load current can have a maximum value of a.

19. What is the PIV across each diode of a bridge rectifier with a secondary voltage of 20 V rms? a.

14.1 V

28.3 V

20 V

34 V

20. If the secondary voltage increases in a bridge rectifier with a capacitor-input filter, the load voltage will a.

Decrease

Increase

Stay the same

None of these

21. If the filter capacitance is increased, the ripple will a.

Decrease

Increase

Stay the same

None of these

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Figure 4-30 22.

23.

24.

25.

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In Fig. 4-30, the filter capacitor is open. What will the load voltage look like on an oscilloscope? a.

Horizontal line at 0 V

Horizontal line at normal output

Half-wave signal

Full-wave signal

Something is shorting out the load resistor of Fig. 4-30. After you remove the short, you should check the condition of the a.

Fuse

Odd-numbered diodes

Even-numbered diodes

All of the foregoing

In Fig. 4-30, the secondary voltage has an rms value of 12.7 V. If a dc voltmeter indicates a load voltage of 11.4 V, the trouble is probably a.

An open filter capacitor

Blown fuse

Open secondary winding

No center tap

The dc load voltage of Fig. 4-30 seems normal, but the ripple is 60 Hz. Which of these is a possible trouble: a.

An open filter capacitor

Blown fuse

Open secondary winding

Open diode

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Basic Problems Sec. 4-1 The Input Transformer 4-1. Suppose the peak value of a sinusoidal voltage is 50 V. What is the rms value? 4-2. Line voltage may vary from 105 to 125 V rms. Calculate the peak value for low-line voltage and high-line voltage. 4-3. A step-up transformer has a turns ratio of 1:4. If the line voltage is 115 V rms, what is the peak secondary voltage? 4-4. A step-down transformer has a primary voltage of 110 V rms and a secondary voltage of 12.7 V rms. What is the turns ratio? 4-5. A transformer has a primary voltage of 120 V rms and a secondary voltage of 25 V rms. If the secondary current is 1A rms, what is the primary current? Sec 4-2 The Half-wave Rectifier 4-6. During the day the line frequency varies slightly from its nominal value of 60 Hz. Suppose the line frequency is 61 Hz. What is the period of the rectified output voltage from a halfwave rectifier? 4-7. A step-down transformer with a turns ratio of 3:1 is connected to a half-wave rectifier. If the line voltage is 115 V rms, what is the peak load voltage? Give the two answers: one for an ideal diode, and another for the second approximation. Sec. 4-3 The Full-wave Rectifier 4-8. During the day, the line frequency drops down to 59 Hz. What is the frequency out of a full-wave rectifier for this input frequency? What is the period of the output? 4-9. Refer to Fig. 4-7. Suppose the line voltage varies from 105 V rms to 125 V rms. What is the peak load voltage for the two extremes? (Use ideal diodes.) 4-10. If the turns ratio of Fig. 4-7 is changed to 6:1, what is the dc load current? Power Production Training

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Sec. 4-4 The Bridge Rectifier 4-11. Refer to Fig. 4-10. If the load resistance is changed to 3.3 k , what is the dc load current? Give answers for two cases: ideal diode and second approximation. 4-12. If in Fig. 4-10, the turns ratio is changed to 6:1 and the load resistance to 820 , what is the dc load current? (Give idealand second-approximation answers.) Sec. 4-5 The Capacitor-input Filter 4-13. A bridge rectifier has a dc load current of 20 mA and a filter capacitance of 680 F. What is the peak-to-peak ripple out of a capacitor-input filter? 4-14. In the previous problem, the rms secondary voltage is 15 V. What is the dc load voltage? Give three answers: one based on ideal diodes, another based on the second approxima-tion, and a third based on the effect of ripple. Sec. 4-6 Calculating Other Quantities 4-15. The rms secondary voltage of Fig. 4-30 is 12.7 V. Use the ideal diode and ignore the effect of ripple on dc load voltage. Work out the values of each of these quantities: dc load voltage, dc load current, dc diode current, rms primary current, peak inverse voltage, and turns ratio. 4-16. Repeat Prob. 4-15, but use the second approximation and include the effect of ripple on the dc load voltage. 4-17. Draw the schematic diagram of a bridge rectifier with a capacitor-input filter and these circuit values: V2 = 20 V, C 1000 F, RL = 1 k . What is the load voltage and peak-topeak ripple? Sec. 4-8 Troubleshooting 4-18. You measure 24 V rms across the secondary of Fig. 4-30. Next you measure 21.6 V dc across the load resistor. What is the most likely trouble? 4-19. The dc load voltage of Fig. 4-30 is too low. Looking at the ripple with a scope, you discover it has a frequency of 60 Hz. Give some possible causes. 4-20. There is no voltage out of the circuit of Fig. 4-30. Give some possible troubles. April, 2010 Page 58

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4-21. Checking with an ohmmeter, you find all diodes in Fig. 4-30 open. You replace the diodes. What else should you check before you power up?

Advanced Problems 4-22 You are designing a bridge rectifier with a capacitor-input filter. The specifications are a dc load voltage of I5 V and a ripple of 1 V for a load resistance of 680 . How much rms voltage should the secondary winding produce for a line voltage of 15 V rms? What size should the filter capacitor be? What are the minimum Io and PIV ratings for diodes? 4-23. Design a full-wave rectifier using a 48 V rms center-tapped transformer that produces a 10 percent ripple across a capacitor-input filter with a load resistance of 330 . What are the minimum Io and PIV ratings of the diodes? 4-24. Design a power supply to meet the following specifications: The secondary voltage is 12.6 V rms and the dc output is approximately 17.8 V at 120 mA. What are the minimum Io and PIV ratings of the diodes? 4-25 A full-wave signal has a dc value of 0.636 times the peak value. With your calculator or a table of sine values, you can derive the average value of 0.636. Describe how you would do it. 4-26. The secondary voltage in Fig. 4-31 is 25 V rms. With the switch in the upper position, what is the output voltage?

4-27. A rectifier diode has a forward voltage of 1.2 V at 2 A. The winding resistance is 0.3 . If the secondary voltage is 25 V rms, what is the surge current in a bridge rectifier?

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T-Shooter Problems Use Fig. 4-32 for the remaining problems. If you haven't already done so, read Example 4-12 before attempting these problems. You can measure voltages in any order; for instance, V2 first, VL second, and VR third, or whatever. These voltages are the clues to the trouble. After measuring a voltage, try to figure out what to measure next. Troubleshooting has so many possibilities that it is impractical to try to give rules for every situation. The best approach is to measure something, then think about what this tells you. Usually, the measurement gives you an idea of what you should measure next. Keep making measurements until you have enough clues to logically figure out what the trouble is.

The possible troubles are open or shorted components (diodes, resistors, capacitors, etc.). Besides voltage measurements, there are other measurements as follows: f for ripple frequency, RL for load resistance, C1 for capacitor resistance, and Fl for fuse resistance.

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4-28. Find Trouble 1. 4-29. Find Troubles 2 and 3. 4-30. Find Troubles 4 and 5. 4-31. Find Troubles 6 and 7. 4-32. Find Troubles 8 and 9.

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Answers 4-1.

35.4 V

4-3.

651 V

4-5.

208 mA

4-7.

54.2 V and 53.5 V

4-9.

14.9 V and 17.7 V

4.11.

6.54 mA (ideal) and 6.27 mA (second)

4.13.

0.245 V

4.15.

18 V, 18 mA, 9 mA, 2.7 mA, 18 V, and 9.45

4.17.

Ideal: 28.3 V and 0.236 V; second: 26.9 V and 0.224 V

4.19.

Possible troubles include and open diode or an open connection in one of the diode branches.

4.21.

You should check the load resistance to see if it is being shorted out.

4.23.

Ideal and ignore ripple. VL = 33.9 V, C = 252 F, IO = 51 mA, and PIV = 33.9; second and ignore ripple: . VL = 32.5 V, C = 252 F, IO = 49.2 mA, and PIV = 33.9; second and include ripple: VL = 30.9 V, C = 252 F, IO = 46.8 mA, and PIV = 33.9 V

4.25.

We can look up the sine of the angle every 5 degrees between 0° and 90°. There are 19 samples including the sine of 0°. By adding up the sine values and dividing by 19, we get 0.629. This is close to the exact value of 0.636. If a more accurate answer is needed, we could use a smaller interval, say every degree.

4.27.

44.2 A

4-29. Trouble 2: Diode open; Trouble 3: Load resistor shorted 4-31. Trouble 6: Load resistor open; Trouble 7: Secondary winding open.

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Special Purpose Diodes

Rectifier diodes are the most common type of diode. They are used in power supplies to convert ac voltage to dc voltage. But rectification is not all that a diode can do. Now we will discuss diodes used in other applications. The chapter begins with the zener diode, which is optimized for its breakdown properties. Zener diodes are very important because they are the key to voltage regulation. The chapter also covers optoelectronic diodes. Schottky diodes, varactors, and other diode

The Zener Diode Small-signal and rectifier diodes are never intentionally operated in the breakdown region because this may damage them. A zener diode is different; it is a silicon diode that the manufacturer has optimized for operation in the breakdown region. In other words, unlike ordinary diodes that never work in the breakdown region, zener diodes work best in the breakdown region. Sometimes called a breakdown diode, the zener diode is the backbone of voltage regulators, circuits that hold the load voltage almost constant despite large changes in line voltage and load resistance. I-V Graph Figure 5-la shows the schematic symbol of a zener diode; Fig. 5 -1b is an alternative symbol. In either symbol, the lines resemble a “z,” which stands for zener. By varying the doping level of silicon diodes, a manufacturer can produce zener diodes with breakdown voltages from about 2 to 200 V. These diodes can operate in any of three regions: forward, leakage, and breakdown. Figure 5-1c shows the I-V graph of a zener diode. In the forward region, it starts conducting around 0.7 V, just like an ordinary Power Production Training

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silicon diode. In the leakage region (between zero and breakdown) it has only a small reverse current. In a zener diode, the breakdown has a very sharp knee, followed by an almost vertical increase in current. Note that the voltage is almost constant, approximately equal to VZ over most of the breakdown region. Data sheets usually specify the value of VZ at a particular test current I ZT . I

Figure 5-1 Zener Diode (a) Symbol (b) Alternative Symbol (c) Diode Curve Do not let the use of the minus signs confuse you. Minus signs need to be included with graphs because you are simultaneously showing forward and reverse values. But you don't have to use minus signs in other discussions if the meaning is clear without them. For instance, it is preferable to say that a zener diode has a breakdown voltage of 10 V, rather than to say it has a breakdown voltage of - 10 V. Anyone who knows how a zener diode works already knows it has to be reverse-biased. A pure mathematician might prefer to say a zener diode has a breakdown voltage of - 10 V, but a practicing engineer or technician will prefer to say it has a breakdown voltage of 10 V. Zener Resistance Because all diodes have some bulk resistance in the p and n regions, the current through a zener diode produces a small voltage drop in addition to the breakdown voltage. To state it another way, when a zener diode is operating in the breakdown region of Fig. 5-lc, an increase in current produces a slight increase in voltage. The increase is very small, typically a few tenths of a volt. This may be April, 2010 Page 64

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important in design work, but not for troubleshooting and preliminary analysis. Unless otherwise indicated, our discussions will ignore the zener resistance.

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Zener Regulator A zener diode is sometimes called a voltage-regulator diode because it maintains a constant output voltage even though the current through it changes. For normal operation, you have to reverse-bias the zener diode as shown in Fig. 5-2a. Furthermore, to get breakdown operation, the source voltage Vs must be greater than the zener breakdown voltage VZ. A series resistor RS is always used to limit the zener current to less than its maximum current rating. Otherwise, the zener diode will burn out like any device with too much power dissipation.

Figure 5-2 Zener Regulator Figure 5-2b shows an alternative way to draw the circuit with grounds. Whenever a circuit has grounds, it is usually best to measure node voltages with respect to ground. In fact, if you are using a voltmeter with a power plug, its common terminal may be grounded. In this case, it is necessary to measure node voltages to ground. For instance, suppose you want to know the voltage across the series resistor of Fig. 5-2b. Here is the usual way to find it when you have a built-up circuit. First, measure the voltage from the left end of RS to ground. Second, measure the voltage from the right end of RS to ground. Third, subtract the two voltages to get the voltage across RS. This indirect method is necessary because the common lead of many plug-in voltmeters is grounded. (Note: If you have a floating VOM, you can connect directly across the series resistor.) Figure 5-2c shows the output of a power supply connected to a series resistor and a zener diode. This circuit is used when you want a de output voltage that is less than the output of the power supply. A circuit like this is called a zener voltage regulator, or simply a zener regulator.

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Ohm's Law Again In Fig. 5-2, the voltage across the series resistor equals the difference between the source voltage and the zener voltage. Therefore, the current through the resistor is IS

(5-1)

Don't memorize this equation. It is nothing more than Ohm's law applied to the series resistor. The series current equals the voltage across the series resistor divided by the resistance. The only thing you have to remember is that the voltage across the series resistor is the difference between the source voltage and the zener voltage. In fact, you don't even have to remember that because the circuit itself contains this information. When you look at Fig. 5-2, you can see at a glance that the voltage across the series resistor equals VS minus VZ. Once you have the value of series current, you also have the value of zener current. Why? Because Fig. 5-2 is a series circuit and you know that current is the same in all parts of a series circuit. Ideal Zener Diode For troubleshooting and preliminary analysis, we can approxi-mate the breakdown region as vertical. Therefore, the voltage is constant even though the current changes, which is equivalent to ignoring the zener resistance. Figure 5-3a shows the ideal approximation of a zener diode. This means that a zener diode operating in the breakdown region ideally acts like a battery. In a circuit, it means that you can mentally replace a zener diode by a voltage source of VZ, provided the zener diode is operating in the breakdown region. Second Approximation

Figure 5-3 Zener approximation Figure 5-3b shows the second approxima(a)small) Ideal; is (b)inSecond tion of a zener diode. A zener resistance (relatively approximation series with an ideal battery. This resistance produces a voltage drop equal to the product of the current and the resistance. Power Production Training

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Example 5–1 Suppose the zener diode of Fig. 5-4a has a breakdown voltage of 10V. What are the minimum and maximum zener currents? Solution The applied voltage may vary from 20 to 40 V. Ideally, a zener diode acts like the battery shown in Fig. 5-4b, Therefore, the output voltage is 10 V for any source voltage between 20 and 40 V. The minimum current occurs when the source voltage is minimum. Visualize 20 V on the left end of the resistor and 10 V on the right end. Then you can see that the voltage across resister is 20 V - 10 V, or 10 V. The rest is Ohm's law: IS

10V

12.2mA

820

Figure 5–4 Example The maximum current occurs when the source voltage is 40 V. In this case, the voltage across resistor is 30 V, which gives a current of IS

30V

3 6 . 6 mA

820

In a voltage regulator like Fig. 5-4a, the output voltage is held constant at 10 V, despite the change in source voltage from 20 to 40 V. The larger source voltage produces more zener current, but the output voltage holds rock-solid at 10 V. (If the zener resistance is included, the output voltage increases slightly when the source voltage increases.)

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The Loaded Zener Regulator Figure 5-5a shows a loaded zener regulator, and Fig, 5-5b shows the same circuit in a practical form. This circuit is more complicated than the unloaded zener regulator analyzed in the previous section, but the basic idea is the same. The zener diode operates in the breakdown region and holds the load voltage constant. Even if the source voltage changes or the load resistance varies, the load voltage will remain fixed and equal to the zener voltage. Breakdown Operation Always remember this: The zener diode has to operate in the breakdown region to hold the load voltage constant, To put it another way, the zener diode cannot regulate if the load voltage is less than the zener voltage. How can you tell if the zener diode of Fig, 5-5 is operating in the breakdown region? The designer of the circuit usually takes care of this. Here is the formula that applies: V TH

RL RS

(5-2)

Figure 5–5 Zener Regulator This is the voltage that exists when the zener diode is disconnected from the circuit. This voltage has to be greater than the zener voltage; otherwise, breakdown cannot occur. Here is where the equation comes from. When the zener diode is disconnected from the circuit, all that's left is a voltage divider consisting of RS in series with RL. The current through this voltage divider is

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The load voltage without the zener diode equals the previous current times the load resistance. When you multiply the current by the load resistance, you get the right side of Eq. (5-2), where VTH stands for the Thevenin voltage. This is the voltage with the zener diode out of the circuit. Series Current Unless otherwise indicated, in all subsequent discussions we assume the zener diode is operating in the breakdown region. In Fig. 5-5, the current through the series resistor is given by IS

(5-3)

This is Ohm's law applied to the current-limiting resistor. It is the same whether or not there is a load resistor. In other words, if you disconnect the load resistor, the current through the series resistor still equals the voltage across the resistor divided by the resistance. Load Current Ideally, the load voltage equals the zener voltage because the load resistor is in parallel with the zener diode. As an equation, VL = VZ

(5-4)

This allows us to use Ohm's law to calculate the load current: VL

(5-5)

Zener Current With KirchhoffÕs current law, IS = I Z + I L This should be clear from your study of series-parallel circuits. The zener diode and the load resistor are in parallel. The sum of their currents has to equal the total current, which is the same as the current through the series resistor. Power Production Training

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We can rearrange the foregoing equation to get this important formula: IZ = I S - I L

(5-6)

This tells you that the zener current no longer equals the series current, as it does in an unloaded zener regulator. Because of the load resistor, the zener current now equals the series current minus the load current. Process Troubleshooters, designers, and other professionals don't blindly plug numbers into formulas, hoping to get the right answer. Professionals know the meaning of each step they take when they solve a problem. Knowing what you are doing is a lot better than relying on formulas. If professionals don't use formulas, what do they use? Some-thing called a process. A process is a step-by-step routine used to solve problems. When professionals solve a problem, they work out the values of different quantities, using Ohm's law in a logical sequence. Occasionally, a complicated formula may be necessary, but that is the exception rather than the rule. Often, problems in electronics are simply Ohm's law and other basic ideas applied over and over to the different components and devices in the circuit. Here is a three-step process for finding the zener current: 1. Calculate the current through the series resistor. 2. Calculate the load current. 3. Calculate the zener current. These steps can be abbreviated to 1. Series current 2. Load current 3. Zener current or symbolically, 1. IS 2. IL April, 2010 Page 72

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3. IZ This is what professionals remember. You get the series current first, the load current second, and the zener current third. And you use Ohm's and other basic ideas in the process. The details of the calculations are automatically remembered, at least most of the time.

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If you can remember the three quantities in the process, your mind usually takes care of the rest of the details. If you do get stuck, look at the formulas to jog your memory. But don't use formulas blindly. Reread the discussion or examples if you can't remember the details of some step in the process. In general, don't memorize any formula unless you expect to use it a few thousand times. Ohm's law is an example of a formula to memorize. The equations of this chapter are examples of formulas you do not memorize because most of them are rewrites of Ohm's law. Ripple across the Load Resistor In Fig. 5-5b, the output of a power supply drives a zener regulator. As you know, the power supply produces a dc voltage with a ripple. Ideally, the zener regulator reduces the ripple to zero because the load voltage is constant and equal to the zener voltage. As an example, suppose the power supply produces a dc voltage of 20 V with a peak-to-peak ripple of 2 V. Then the supply voltage is swinging from 19 V minimum to 21 V maximum. Variations in supply voltage will change the zener current, out they have almost no effect on the load voltage. If you take into account the small zener resistance, you will find that there is a small ripple across the load resistor. But this ripple is much smaller than the original ripple coming out of the power supply. In fact, you can estimate the new ripple with this equation: V R ( out )

RZ RS

V R ( in )

(5-7)

This is an accurate approximation of peak-to-peak output ripple. If it reminds you of a voltage divider, you are right on target. It comes from visualizing the zener diode replaced by its second approximation. With respect to the ripple, the circuit acts like a voltage divider formed by RS in series with RZ.

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Temperature Coefficient One final point: Raising the ambient (surrounding) temperature changes the zener voltage slightly. On data sheers, the effect of temperature is listed under the temperature coefficient, which is the percentage change per degree change. A designer needs to calculate the change in zener voltage at the highest ambient temperature. But even a troubleshooter should know that temperature can change the zener voltage. For zener diodes with breakdown voltages less than 5 V, the temperature coefficient is negative. For tenet diodes with breakdown voltages of more than 6 V, the temperature coefficient is positive. Between 5 and 6 V, the temperature coefficient changes from negative to positive; this means that you can find an operating point for a zener diode at which the temperature coefficient is zero. This is important in some applications where a solid zener voltage is needed over a large temperature range. Example 5–2 Figure 5-6 has these circuit values: VS = 18 V, VZ 10 V, RS = 270 , and RL = 1k . Is the zener diode operating in breakdown region? Solution Use Eq. (5-2), or better still, use your head. Mentally disconnect the zener diode. Then all that is left is a voltage divider with 270 in series with 1k . Therefore, the current through the voltage divider is I

18V

14.2mA

1 . 27 k

Figure 5–6 Example Multiply this current by the total resistance to get the Thevenin voltage : Power Production Training

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VTH = (14.2 mA)(1 k

) = 14.2 V

Since this voltage is greater than the zener voltage (10 V), the zener diode will operate in the breakdown region when it is reconnected to the circuit. Naturally, you can plug the values directly into Eq. (5-2) as follows: 1K

V TH

18V

14.2V

1 . 27 K

The result is the same, so either method is acceptable. The advantage of the first method is that you are more likely to remember it because it is Ohm's law applied twice. Also, the first method requires you to think logically about what is happening in the circuit. But either method is valid, so use whichever you prefer. Example 5–3 What does the zener current equal in Fig. 5-6b? Solution You are given the voltage on both ends of the series resistor. Subtract the voltages, and you can see that 8 V is across the series resistor. Then Ohm's law gives 8V

29.6mA

270

Since the load voltage is 10 V, the load current is IL

10V

1 0 mA

The zener current is the difference of the two currents: IZ = 29.6 mA - 10 mA = 19.6 mA

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Figure 5–7 Zener Regulator with the Load Resistor

Example 5–4 The data sheet of a 1N961 gives a zener resistance of 8.5 . Suppose this zener diode is used in Fig, 5-7 with a series resistance of 270 . . What is the load ripple if the supply ripple is 2.V? With Eq. (5-7), V R ( OUT

8 .5 )

(2V)

0.061V

61mV

278 . 5

The final output is a dc voltage of 10V with a peak-to-peak ripple of only 6l mV Example 5–5 What does the circuit of Fig. 5-8 do? Solution This is an example of a preregulator (the first zener diode) driving a zener regulator (the second zener diode). First, notice that the preregulator has an output voltage of 20V. This is the input to the second zener regulator, whose, output is 10 V. The basic idea is to provide the second regulator with a well-regulated input, so that the final output is extremely well regulated.

Figure 5–8 Example Example 5–6 What does the circuit of Fig, 5-9 do?

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Solution In most applications, zener diodes are used in voltage regulators where they remain in the breakdown region. But there are exceptions. Sometimes zener diodes are used in wave shaping circuits like Fig. 5-9. Notice the back-to-back action of two zener diodes.: On the positive half-cycle, the upper diode conducts and the lower diode breaks down. Therefore, the output is clipped as shown. The clipping level equals the zener voltage (broken-down diode) plus 0.7 V (forwardbiased diode). On the negative half-cycle, the action is reversed. The lower diode conducts, and the upper diode breaks down. In this way, the output is almost a square wave. The larger the input sine wave, the better looking the output square wave.

Optoelectronic Devices Optoelectronics is the technology that combines optics and electronics. This exciting field includes many devices based on the action of a pn junction. Examples of optoelectronic devices are light-emitting diodes (LEDs), photodiodes, optocouplers, etc. Our discussion begins with the LED. Light-Emitting Diode Figure 5-10a shows a source connected to a resistor and a LED. The outward arrows symbolize the radiated light. In a forward-biased LED, free electrons cross the junction and fall into holes. As these electrons fall from a higher to a lower energy level, they radiate energy. In ordinary diodes, this energy goes off in the form of heat. But in a LED, the energy is radiated as light. LEDs have replaced incandescent lamps in many applications because of their low voltage, long life, and fast on-off switching.

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Figure 5–10 LED Circuits Ordinary diodes are made of silicon, an opaque material that blocks the passage of light. LEDs are different. By using elements like gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus, a manufacturer can produce LEDs that radiate red, green, yellow, blue, orange, or infrared (invisible). LEDs that produce visible radiation are useful with instruments, calculators, etc. The infrared LED finds applications in burglar alarm systems and other areas requiring invisible radiation. LED Voltage and Current The resistor of Fig. 5-10 is the usual current-limiting resistor that prevents the current from exceeding the maximum current rating of the diode. Since the resistor has a node voltage of VS on the left and a node voltage of VD on the right, the voltage across the resistor is the difference between the two voltages. With Ohm's law, the series current is IS

VD RS

(5-8)

For most of the commercially available LEDs, the typical voltage drop is from 1.5 to 2.5 V for currents between 10 and 50 mA. The exact voltage drop depends on the LED current, color, tolerance, etc. Unless otherwise specified, we will use a nominal drop of 2 V when troubleshooting or analyzing the LED circuits in this book. If you get into design work, consult the data sheets for the LEDs you are using. Seven-Segment Display Figure 5-11a shows a seven-segment display. It contains seven rectangular LEDs (A through G). Each LED is called a segment because it forms part of the character being displayed. Figure 5-11b is a schematic diagram of the seven-segment display. External series resistors are included to limit the currents to safe levels. By grounding one or more resistors, we can form any digit from 0 through 9. For instance, by grounding A, B, and C, we get a 7. Grounding A, B, C, D, and G produces a 3. A seven-segment display can also display capital letters A, C, E, and F, plus lowercase letters b and d. Microprocessor trainers often

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use seven-segment displays that show all digits from 0 through 9, plus A, b, C, d, E, and F. The seven-segment indicator of Fig. 5-11b is referred to as the common-anode type because all anodes are connected together. Also available is the common-cathode type where all cathodes are connected together.

Figure 5–11 (a) Seven-segment Indicator; (b) Schematic Diagram Photodiode As previously discussed, one component of reverse current in a diode is the flow of minority carriers. These carriers exist because thermal energy keeps dislodging valence electrons from their orbits, producing free electrons and holes in the process. The lifetime of the minority carriers is short, but while they exist they can contribute to the reverse current. When light energy bombards a pn junction, it can dislodge valence electrons. The more light striking the junction, the larger the reverse current in a diode. A photodiode is one that has been optimized for its sensitivity to light. In this diode, a window lets light pass through the package to the junction. The incoming light produces free electrons and holes. The stronger the light, the greater the number of minority carriers and the larger the reverse current. Figure 5-12 shows the schematic symbol of a photodiode. The arrows represent the incoming Light. Especially important, the source and the series resistor reverse-bias the photodiode. As the light becomes brighter, the reverse current increases. With typical photodiodes, the reverse current is in the tens of microamperes.

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Figure 5–12 Photodiode

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Optocoupler An optocoupler (also called an optoisolator or an optically coupled isolator) combined a LED and a photodiode in a single package. Figure 5-13 shows an optocoupler. It has a LED on the input side and a photodiode on the output side. The left source voltage and the series resistor set up a current through the LED. Then the light from the LED hits the photodiode, and this sets up a reverse current in the output circuit. This reverse current produces a voltage across the output resistor. The output voltage then equals the output supply voltage minus the voltage across the resistor. When the input voltage is varying, the amount of light is fluctuating. This means that the output voltage is varying in step with the input voltage. This is why the combination of a LED and a photodiode is called an optocoupler. The device can couple an input signal to the output circuit.

Figure 5–13 Optocoupler The key advantage of an optocoupler is the electrical isolation between the input and output circuits. With an optocoupler, the only contact between the input and the output is a beam of light. Because of this, it is possible to have an insulation resistance between the two circuits in the thousands of megohms. Isolation like this comes in handy in high-voltage applications where the potentials of the two circuits may differ by several thousand volts. Example 5–7 In Fig. 5-10 the source voltage is 10 V, and the series resistance is 680 , What is the LED current? Solution Use a nominal LED drop of 2 V. Then the series resistor has 10 V on the left end and 2.V on the right end. This means the voltage across the resistor is 8 V. Finish off the problem with Ohm's law: April, 2010 Page 82

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11.8mA

680

The Schottky Diode At lower frequencies, an ordinary diode can easily turn off when the bias changes from forward to reverse. But as the frequency increases, the diode reaches a point where it cannot turn off fast enough to prevent noticeable current during part of the reverse half-cycle. This effect is known as charge storage. It places a limit on the useful frequency of ordinary rectifier diodes. What happens is this. When a diode is forward-biased, some of the carriers in the depletion layers have not yet recombined. If the diode is suddenly reverse-biased, these carriers can how in the reverse direction for a little while. The greater the lifetime, the longer these charges can contribute to reverse current. The time it takes to turn off a forward-biased diode is called the reverse recovery time, The reverse recovery time is so short in small-signal diodes that you don't even notice its effect at frequencies below 10 MHz or so. It's only when you get well above 10 MHz that it becomes important. The solution is a special-purpose device called a Schottky diode. This type of diode has no depletion layer, which eliminates the stored charges at the junction. The lack of charge storage means the Schottky diode can switch off faster than an ordinary diode. In fact, a Schottky diode can easily rectify frequencies above 300 MHz. The most important application of Schottky diodes is in digital computers. The speed of computers depends on how fast their diodes and transistors can turn on and off. This is where the Schottky diode comes in. Because it has no charge storage, the Schottky diode has become the backbone of low-power Schottky TTL, a group of widely used digital devices. A final point: In the forward direction, a Schottky diode has a barrier potential of only 0.25 V. Therefore, you may see Schottky

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diodes used in a low-voltage bridge rectifiers because you have to subtract only 0.25 instead of the usual 0.7 V for each diode.

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The Varactor The varactor (also called the voltagevariable capacitance, varicap, epicap, and tuning diode) is widely used in television receivers, FM receivers, and other communications equipment. Here is the basic idea. In Fig. 5-14a, the depletion layer is between the p region and the n region. The p and n regions are like the plates of a capacitor, and the depletion layer is like the dielectric, When a diode is reverse-biased, the width of the depletion layer increases with the reverse voltage. Since the depletion layer gets wider with more reverse voltage, the capacitance becomes smaller. It's as though you moved apart the plates of a capacitor. The key idea is that capacitance is controlled by voltage. Figure 5–14 — Varactor (a) Structure: (b) Equivalent Circuit; (c) Schematic Symbol; (d) Graph

Figure 5-14b shows the equivalent circuit for a reverse-biased diode. At higher frequencies, the varactor acts the same as a variable capacitance. Figure 5-14d shows how the capacitance varies with reverse voltage. This graph shows that the capacitance gets smaller when the reverse voltage gets larger. The really important idea here is that reverse voltage controls capacitance. This opens the door to remote control. Figure 5-14c shows the schematic symbol for a varactor. How is this device used? You can connect a varactor in parallel with an inductor to get a resonant circuit. Then you can change the reverse voltage to change the resonant frequency. This is the principle behind tuning in a radio station, a TV channel, etc.

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Varistors Lightning, power-line faults, etc., can pollute the line voltage by super imposing dips, spikes, and other transients on the normal 115 V rms. Dips are severe voltage drops lasting microseconds or less. Spikes are short over voltages of 500 to more than 2000 V. In some equipment, filters are used between the power line and the primary of the transformer to eliminate the problems caused by line transients. One of the devices used for line filtering is the varistor (also called a transient suppressor). This semiconductor device is like two back-toback zener diodes with a high breakdown voltage in both directions. For instance, a V130LA2 is a varistor with a breakdown voltage of 184 V (equivalent to 130 V rms) and a peak current rating of 400 A. Connect one of these across the primary winding, and you don't have to worry about spikes. The varistor will clip all spikes at the 184-V level and protect your equipment.

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Reading a Data Sheet The Appendix shows the data sheet for the 1N746 series of zener diodes. This data sheet also covers the 1N957 series and the 1N4370 series. Refer to these data sheets during the following discussion. Again, most of the information on a data sheet is for designers, but there are a few items that even troubleshooters and testers will want to know about. Maximum Power The power dissipation of a zener diode equals the product of its voltage and current: PZ = VZIZ

(5-9)

For instance, if VZ = 12 V and IZ = 10 mA, then PZ = (12 V)(10 mA) = 120 mW As long as PZ is less than the power rating, the zener diode can operate in the breakdown region without being destroyed. Commercially available zener diodes have power ratings from 4 to more than 50 W. For example, the data sheet for the 1N746 series lists a maximum power rating of 400 mW. A safe design includes a safety factor to keep the power dissipation well below this 400-mW maximum. As mentioned elsewhere, safety factors of 2 or more are used for conservative designs. Maximum Current Data sheets usually include the maximum current a zener diode can handle without exceeding its power rating. This maximum current is related to the power rating as follows: IZM

P ZM VZ

(5-10)

where IZM = maximum rated zener current PZM = power rating

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VZ = zener voltage

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For example, the 1N759 has a tenet voltage of 12 V. Therefore, it has maximum current rating of I ZM

400mW

33.3mA

12 V

The data sheet gives two maximum current ratings: 30 and 35 mA. Notice these values bracket our theoretical answer of 33.3 mA. The data sheet gives you two values because of the tolerance in the tenet voltage. If you satisfy the current rating, you automatically satisfy the power rating. For instance, if you keep the maximum zener current less than 33.3 mA, you are also keeping the maximum power dissipation less than 400 mW. If you throw in the safety factor of 2, you don't have to worry about a marginal design blowing the diode. Tolerance Note 1 on the data sheet shows these tolerances: lN4370 series:

10 percent, suffix A for + 5 percent units

1N746 series:

10 percent, suffix A for +5 percent units

1N957 series: 20 percent, suffix A for ~ 10 percent units, suffix B for 5 percent units For instance, a 1N758 has a zener voltage of 10 V with a tolerance of 10 percent, while the 1N758A has the same zener voltage with a tolerance of +5 percent. The 1N967 has a zener voltage of 18V with a tolerance of 20 percent. The 1N967A has the same zener voltages with a tolerance of 10 percent, and the 1N967B has the same voltage with a tolerance of 5 percent. Zener Resistance The tenet resistance (also called zener impedance) may be designated RZT or ZZT. For instance, the 1N961 has a tenet resistance of 8.5 . measured at a test current of 12.5 mA. As long as the zener current is above the knee of the curve, you can use 8.5 as the approximate value of the zener resistance. But note how the zener resistance increases at the knee of the curve (700 ). The point is this: Operation should be at or near the test current, if at all possible. Then you know the zener resistance is relatively small. Power Production Training

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The data sheet contains a lot of additional information, but it is primarily aimed at designers. If you do get involved in design work, then you have to read the data sheet carefully, including the notes that specify how quantities were measured. Data sheets vary from one manufacturer to the next, so you have read between the lines if you want to get to the truth. Derating The derating factor shown on a data sheet tells you how much you to reduce the power rating of a device. For instance, the 1N746 series has a power rating of 400 mW for a lead temperature of 50¡C. The derating factor is given as 3.2 mW/ ¡C. This means that you have to subtract 3.2 mW for each degree above 50¡C . Even though you may not be involved in design, you have to be aware of the effect of temperature. If it is known that the lead temperature will be above 50¡C, the designer has to derate or reduce the power rating of the zener diode.

Troubleshooting Figure 5-15 shows a zener regulator. When the circuit is working properly, the voltage between node A and ground is +18 V, the voltage between A node B and ground is + l0 V, and the voltage between node C and ground is + 10 V. Now, let's discuss what can go wrong with the circuit. When a circuit is not working as it should, a troubleshooter usually starts by measuring node voltages. These voltage measurements give clues that help isolate the trouble. For instance, suppose he or she measures these node voltages VA = + 18 V VB = + 10 V VC = 0 When you are trying to figure out what causes incorrect voltages, trial and error is useful. That is, you play the what-if game. Here is what may go through a troubleshooter's mind after measuring the foregoing node voltages.

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Figure 5–15 Zener Regulator What if the load resistor were open? No, the load voltage would still be + 10 V. What if the load resistor were shorted? No, that would pull nodes B and C down to ground, producing 0 V. All right, what if the connecting wire between nodes B and C were open? Yes, that would do it. That's got to be it. This trouble produces unique symptoms. The only way you can get this set of voltages is with an open connection between nodes B and C. Not all troubles produce unique symptoms. Sometimes, two or more troubles produce the same set of voltages. Here is an example. Suppose the troubleshooter measures these node voltages: VA = +18V VB = 0 VC = 0 What do you think the trouble is? Think about this for a few minutes. When you have an answer, read what follows. Here is a way that a troubleshooter might find the trouble. The thinking goes like this: I've got voltage at A, but not at B and C. What if the series resistor were open? Then no voltage could reach node B or node C, but I would still measure + 18 V between node A and ground. Yes, the series resistor is probably open. At this point, the troubleshooter would disconnect the series resistor and measure its resistance with an ohmmeter. Chances are

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that it would be open. But suppose it measures okay. Then the troubleshooter's thinking continues like this: That's strange. Well, is there any other way I can get +18 V at node A and 0 V at nodes B and C? What if the zener diode were shorted? What if the load resistor were shorted? What if a solder splash were between node B or node C and ground. Any of these will produce the symptoms I'm getting. Now, the troubleshooter has more possible troubles to check out. Eventually, she or he will find the trouble. When components burn out, they usually become open, but not always. Some semiconductor devices can develop internal shorts, in which case, they are like zero resistances. Other ways to get shorts include a solder splash between traces on a printed-circuit board, a solder ball touching two traces, etc. Because of this, you must include what-if questions in terms of open components, as well as open components. Example 5–8 Assume an ideal zener diode and work out the node voltages for all possible shorts and opens in Fig. 5-15. Solution In working out the voltages, remember this. A shorted compon-ent is equivalent to a resistance of zero, while an open compon-ent is equivalent to a resistance of infinity. If you have trouble calculating with 0 and ∞ then use 0.001 and 1000 M . In other words, use a very small resistance for a short and a very large resistance for an open. To begin, the series resistor RS may be shorted or open. Let us designate these RSS and RSO, respectively. Similarly, the zener diode may be shorted or open, symbolized by D1S and D10. Also, the load resistor may be shorted or open, RLS and RLO. Finally, the connecting wire between B and C may be open, designated BCO. If the series resistor were shorted, + 18 V would appear at nodes B and C. This would destroy the zener diode and possibly the load resistor, but the voltage would remain at + 18 V. Then a troubleshooter would measure VA = +18 V, VB = + 18V, and VC = +18V. This trouble and its voltages are shown in Table 5-1. April, 2010 Page 92

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If the series resistor were open, then the voltage could not reach node B. In this case, nodes B and C would have zero voltage. Continuing like this, we can get the remaining entries shown in Table 5-1.

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In Table 5-1, the comments indicate troubles that might occur as a direct result of the original short circuits. For instance, a shorted RS will destroy the zener diode and may also burn out the load resistor. It depends on the power rating of the load resistor. A shorted RS means there's 18 V across k . This produces a power of 0.324 W. If the load resistor is rated at only 0.25 W, it will burn out. Study the table. You can learn a lot from it. Also, use the T-shooter at the end of this chapter to practice troubleshooting a zener regulator.

Table 5–1 Zener Regulator Troubles and Symptoms

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Optional Topics The following material continues the earlier discussions at a more advanced and specialized level. All the topics are optional because they are not used in any of the basic discussions in later chapters. This section will be a useful reference when you are in industry because then you will probably want more advanced viewpoints.

Load Lines The current through the zener diode of Fig. 5-16a is given by IS

(5-11)

This says the zener current equals the voltage across the series resistor divided by the resistance. Equation (511) can be used to construct load line as previously discussed. For instance, suppose VS = 20 V and RS = 1 k . Then the foregoing equation reduces to IS

1000

Figure 5–16 Zener Diode Circuit

As before, we get the saturation point (vertical intercept) by setting VZ equal to zero and solving for IZ to get 20 mA. Similarly, to get the cutoff point (horizontal intercept), we set IZ equal to zero and solve for VZ to get 20 V. The following study aids will help to reinforce the ideas discussed in this chapter. For best results, use these study aids within 6 hours of reading the earlier material. Then review these study aids a week later and month later to ensure that the concepts remain in your long-term memory. Power Production Training

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Summary Sec. 5-1 The Zener Diode This is special diode optimized for operation in the breakdown region. Its main use is in voltage regulators, circuits that hold the load voltage constant. Ideally, a zener diode is like a perfect battery. To a second approximation, it has bulk resistance that produces a small additional voltage. Sec. 5-2 The Loaded Zener Regulator When a zener diode is in parallel with a load resistor, the current through the current-limiting resistor equals the sum of the zener current and the load current. The process for analyzing zener regulator consists of finding the series current, load current, and zener current (in that order.) Sec. 5-3 Optoelectronic Devices The LED is widely used as an indicator on instruments, calculators, and other electronic equipment. By combining seven LEDs in a package, we get a seen-segment indicator. Another important optoelectronic device is the optocoupler, which allows us to couple a signal between two isolated circuits. Sec. 5-4 The Schottky Diode The reverse recovery time is the time it takes a diode to shut off after it is suddenly switched from forward to reverse bias. This time may only be a few nanoseconds, but it places a limit on how high the frequency can be in rectifier circuit. The Schottky diode is a special diode with almost zero reverse recovery time. Because of this, the Schottky diode is useful at high frequencies where short switching times are needed. Sec. 5- 5 The Veractor The width of the depletion layer increases with the reverse voltage. This is why the capacitance of a varactor can be controlled by the reverse voltage. This leads to remote tuning of radio and television sets.

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Sec. 5-6 Varistors These protective devices are used across the primary winding of a transformer to prevent voltage spikes from damaging or otherwise polluting the in and out voltage to the equipment. Sec. 5-7 Reading a Data Sheet The most important quantities on the data sheet of zener diodes are the zener voltage, the maximum power rating, the maximum current rating, and the tolerance. Designers also need the zener resistance, the derating factor, and a few other items. Sec. 5-8 Troubleshooting Troubleshooting is an art and a science. Because of his, you can only learn so much from a book. The rest has to be learned from direct experience with circuits in trouble. Because trouble-shooting is an art, you have to ask What if? Often and feel your way to a solution.

Vocabulary In your own words, explain what each of the following terms mean. Keep your answers short and to the point. If necessary, verify your answer by rereading the appropriate discussion or by looking at end-of-book Glossary. Light emitting diode (LED)

temperature coefficient

open

varactor

optocoupler

varistor

photodiode

voltage regulator

photodiode

zener resistance

process

zener voltage

Schottky diode

short

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Important Equations The following formulas are useless if you don’t know what they mean in words. Suggestion: Look at each formula, then read the words to find out what it means.. Your chances of learning and remembering are much better if you concentrate on words rather than formulas. Eq. 5-1 Current through Series Resistor VS _VZ

This is an equation that you do not have to memorize. It says the current through the series resistor equals the voltage across the series resistor divided by the resistance. It is another example if Ohm’s law, where the voltage is the difference of the node voltages of the ends of a resistor. Eq. 5-2 Thevenin Voltage RL

V TH

This is the voltage across the load resistor when the zener diode is disconnected. One way to remember it this: VS divided by RS + RL is the load current. Multiply this load current by RL and you get VTH. The value of VTH has to be larger than the zener voltage to get voltage regulation. Eq. 5-6 Zenner Current IZ = IS - IL This is disguised form of Kirchhoff’s current law. It says the zener current equals the difference between the series current and load current. To use it, you must already have carried out the two preceding steps in the process: 1. Find IS2. Find IL.

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Eq. 5-7 Zenner Power PZ = VZIZ The zener power equals the zener voltage times the zener current. This power has to be less than the maximum power rating listed on the data sheet. Otherwise, you may burn out or seriously degrade the characteristics of the zener diode. Eq. 5-8 LED Current IS

VD RS

This gives you the current through a resistor in series with a LED. It says the current equals the voltage across the series resistor divided by the resistance. Use 2 V for the value of VD, unless you have a more accurate value for the voltage across the LED.

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Questions The following may have more than one right answer, Select the best answer. This is the one that is always true, or covers more situations, etc. 1. What is true about the breakdown voltage in a zener diode? a. It decreases when current increases. b. It destroys the diode. c. It equals the current times the resistance. d. It is approximately constant. 2. Which of these is the best description of a zener diode? a. It is a diode. b. It is a constant-voltage device. c. It is a constant-current device. d. It works in the forward region. 3. A zener diode a. Is a battery b. Acts like a battery in the breakdown region c. Has a barrier potential of 1 V d. Is forward-biased 4. The voltage across the zener resistance is usually a. Small b. Large c.

Measured in volts

d. Subtracted from the breakdown voltage 5. If the series resistance decreases in an unloaded zener regulator, the zener current a. Decreases b. Stays the same c. Increases d. Equals the voltage divided by the resistance April, 2010 Page 100

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6. In the second approximation, the total voltage across the zener diode is the sum of the breakdown voltage and the voltage across the a. Source b. Series resistor c. Zener resistance d, Zenerdiode 7. The load voltage is approximately constant when a zener diode is a. Forward-biased b. Reverse-biased c. Operating in the breakdown region d. Unbiased 8. In a loaded zener regulator, which is the largest current? a. Series current b. Zener current c. Load current d. None of these 9. If the load resistance decreases in a zener regulator, the zener current a. Decreases b. Stays the same c. Increases d. Equals the source voltage divided by the series resistance 10. If the load resistance decreases in a zener regulator, the series current a. Decreases b. Stays the same c. Increases

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d. Equals the source voltage divided by the series resistance

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11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

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When the source voltage increases in a zener regulator, which of these currents remains approximately constant? a.

Series current

Zener current

Load current

Total current

If the zener diode in a zener regulator is connected with the wrong polarity, the load voltage will be closest to a.

0.7 V

10 V

14 V

18 V

At high frequencies, ordinary diodes don't work properly because of a.

Forward bias

Reverse bias

Breakdown

Charge storage

The capacitance of a varactor diode increases when the reverse voltage across it a.

Decreases

Increases

Breaks down

Stores charges

Breakdown does not destroy a zener diode, provided the zener current is less than the a.

Breakdown voltage

Zener test current

Maximum zener current racing

Barrier potential Test Technician

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16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

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To display the digit 8 in a seven-segment indicator, a.

C must be lighted

G must be off

F must be on

All segments must be lighted

A photo diode is normally a.

Forward-biased

Reverse-biased

Neither forward- nor reverse-biased

Emitting light

When the light increases, the reverse minority-carrier current in a photodiode a.

Decreases

Increases

Is unaffected

Reverses direction

The device associated with voltage-controlled capacitance is a a.

LED

Photodiode

Varactor diode

Zenerdiode

If the depletion layer gets wider, the capacitance a.

Decreases

Stays the same

Increases

Is variable

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21.

22.

When the reverse voltage increases, the capacitance a.

Decreases

Stays the same

Increases

Has more band width

The varactor is usually a.

Forward-biased

Reverse-biased

Unbiased

In the breakdown region

Basic Problems Sec. 5-1 The Zener Diode 5-1.

An unloaded zener regulator has a source voltage of 20V, a series resistance of 330 , and a zener voltage of 12 V. What is the zener current?

5-2.

If the source voltage in Prob. 5-1 varies from 20 to 40 V, what is the maximum zener current?

5-3.

If the series resistor of Prob. 5-1 has a tolerance of percent, what is the maximum zener current?

Sec. 5-2 The Loaded Zener Regulator 5-4.

If the zener diode is disconnected in Fig. 5-23, what is the load voltage?

5-5.

Assume the supply voltage of Fig. 5-23 decreases from 20 to O V. At some point along the way, the zener diode will stop regulating: Find the supply voltage where regulation is lost.

5-6.

Calculate all three currents in Fig. 5-23.

5-7.

Assuming a tolerance of 10 percent in both resistors of Fig. 5-23, what is the maximum zener current?

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5-8.

Suppose the supply voltage of Fig. 5-23 can vary from 20 to 40 V. What is the maximum zener current?

5-9.

What is the power dissipation in the resistors and zener diode of Fig. 5-23?

5-10. The zener diode of Fig. 5-23 is replaced with a IN961. What are the load voltage and the zener current? 5-11. The zener diode of Fig. 5-23 has a zener resistance of 11.5 If the power supply has a ripple of I V, what is the ripple across the load resistor?

5-12. Draw the schematic diagram of a zener regulator with a supply voltage of 25 V, a series resistance of 470 , a zener voltage of I5 V, and a load resistance of 1 k . What are the load voltage and the zener current? Sec. 5-3 Optoelectronic Devices 5-13. What is the current through the LED of Fig. 5-24? 5-14. If the supply voltage of Fig. 5-24 increases to 40 V, what is the LED current? 5-15. If the resistor is decreased to 1 k in Fig. 5-24?

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, what is the LED current

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Solutions for Odd Numbered Questions

5-1.

24.2 mA

5-3.

26.9 mA

5-5.

14.6 V

5-7.

19.6 mA

5-9.

Ps is 194 mW, PL is 96 mW, and Pt is 195 mW

5-11. 33.7 mV 5-13. 5.91 mA 5-15. 13 mA 5-17. 200 mW 5-19. 11.4 V, 12.6 V 5-21. a. O b. 16.4 V c. O d. O 5-23. Check for a short across the 330 R. 5-25. 12.2 V 5-27. Many designs are possible here. One design is a 1N754, a series resistance of 270 R, and a load resistance of 220 R. This design results in a series current of 48.9 mA, a load current of 30.9 mA, zener current of 18 mA. 5-29. 26 mA 5-31. 7.98 V 5-33. Trouble 2: Wire ED open 5-35. Trouble 5: No supply voltage

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Ohm’s Law and Power

The following examples are designed to reinforce your understanding of the use of Ohm’s law and power formulas with scientific notation. All of the examples involve the use of powers of ten with one exception. Example 5 illustrates the proper use of the P-12-R circle formula to find the current flowing in a simple circuit. This involves taking the square root of a number. Since the procedure for finding square roots of quantities expressed in scientific notation is covered in Lesson 10, only very simple numbers are used in the example. 1. In the simple circuit shown, a voltage is applied to a resistor and current flows through the resistor. Use Ohm’s law to find the applied voltage if the current is 5 mA and the resistance is 3 kilohms.

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a. Draw the circle formula for Ohm’s law. b. Cover the quantity you want to find with your thumb; in this case, cover E. Remember, a vertical line tells you to multiply the quantities on either side of the line and a horizontal line tells you to divide the bottom quantity into the top. E=1XR

c. The resulting formula is E = 1 X R.

E = 5 mA X 3k

d. Substitute the values of voltage and current in the formula

E = 5 X 10-3 X 3 X 10+3

e. Convert to powers of ten.

E = 15 X 100

E = 15 volts

g. Convert to metric prefixed form. Because 100 = 1, the answer can best be expressed directly in units, E = 15 volts.

Multiply the leading numbers and combine the exponents. In this case, +3 and -3 equal zero.

2. Given the same circuit as in Example 1, use Ohm’s law to find the current flowing when the voltage is 12.6 volts and the resistance is 820 ohms. a. Draw the circle formula for Ohm’s law. b. Cover the quantity you want to find with your thumb; in this case, cover I.

c. The resulting formula is I =

820

X 10

8 .2 X 10 1 .26

X 10

e. Convert to powers of ten.

1 2

g. Combine the exponents. Here a +1 and a -2 equal -1.

8 .2 1 .26

X 10 8 .2

d. Substitute the values of voltage and resistance in the formula.

12 .6 V

1 .26

Bring the bottom exponent across the division line, up to the top and change its sign.

I = .154 X 10-1

h. Divide the leading numbers and round off.

I = 15.4 mA

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Convert to metric prefixed form.

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3. Again considering the same circuit as before, find the power dissipated by the resistor when the applied voltage is 45 volts and the current flowing through the resistor is 16 mA. a. Draw the P-I-E circle formula for power. b. Cover the quantity you want to find with your thumb; in this case, cover P. P=IXE

c. The resulting formula is P = I X E.

P = 16 mA X 45 V

d. Substitute the values of voltage and current in the formula.

P = 16 X 10-3 X 4.5 X 10+1

e. Convert to powers of ten.

P = 72 X 10-2

P = 720 mW

g. Convert to metric prefixed form. A 1-watt resistor would be appropriate for this example.

Multiply the leading numbers and combine the exponents. In this case, -3 and +1 equal -2.

4. In a simple circuit, find the power dissipated by a 100-ohm resistor when the current flowing through it is 50 mA. a. Since you know I and R, and need to find P, select the P-12-r circle formula for power. b. Cover the quantity you want to find with your thumb; in this case, cover P. P = 12 X R

c. The resulting formula is P = 12 X R.

P = (50 MA)2 X 100

d. Substitute the values of current and resistance in the formula.

P = (5 X 10-2) X (5 X 10-2) X 1 X 10+2

e. Convert to powers of ten. Since 50 mA equal 5 X 10-2, the square of 50 mA equals 5 X 10-2 times 5 X 10-2.

P = 25 X 10-4 X 1 X 10+2

P = 25 X 10-2

g. Multiply again and add the exponents. Here -4 and +2 equals -2.

P = 250 mW

h. Convert to metric prefixed form. A 1/2-watt resistor would be used in this example.

Multiply 5 X 10-2 by itself remembering to add the exponents. Here -2 and -2 equals -4.

5. Given a simple circuit, find the current flowing through a 4-ohm resistor April, 2010 Page 110

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when the resistor is dissipating 100 watts of power. a. Here you know P and R, and need 1, so draw the P-12-R circle formula. b. Cover the quantity you want to find with your thumb; in this case cover I2. I2 =

I2 =

c. The resulting formula is I2 =

R 100

d. Substitute the values of power and resistance in the formula.

I2 = 25

e. Divide; note that the result is the square of current.

I=5A

To get the current, you must then find the square root of 25.

g. If you have a calculator with a square root key, enter 25, press the square root key, and the answer, 5, will appear in the display. You may also use the square root tables in the Appendix. To find the square root of 25, look up 25 in the table, and look across to the column labeled square roots ( ) where you should see “5.”

6. If the voltage applied to a 3.3 kilohm resistor in a simple circuit is 15 volts, find the power dissipated by the resistor. a. Here you know E and R and need to find P, so draw the E2-R-P circle formula. b. Cover the quantity you want to find with your thumb; in this case, cover P. P=

c. The resulting formula is P =

R (15

P= ( 1 .5 X

3 .3

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) X ( 1 .5 X

d. Substitute the values of voltage and resistance in the formula.

3 .3 k

)

e. Convert to powers of ten. Since 15 volts equals 1.5 X 10+1, the square of 15 volts equals 1.5 X 10+1 times 1.5 X 10+1.

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2 .25

3 .3 X 10 2 .25

X 10

3 .3 2 .25

X 10 3 .3

X 10

Square 1.5 X 10+1 by multiplying it by itself, remembering to add the exponents.

g. Bring the bottom exponent across the division line, up to the top and change its sign. h. Combine the exponents; here +2 and -3 equals -1.

P = .682 X 10-1

Divide the leading numbers and round off.

P = 68.2 mW

Convert to metric prefixed form.

7. In the simple circuit shown below, the applied voltage forces current to flow through the resistor. If the voltage is increased while the resistance remains constant, the current will increase. Remember, in a circuit with a constant resistance, voltage and current vary directly. On the chart next to the circuit, the increase in voltage is indicated by an arrow pointing up ( ), the constant resistance is indicated by a dot (•), and the resulting increase in current flow is also indicated by an arrow point up ( ). In a direct relationship, when one quantity increases, the other quantity decreases. Using this information and considering the simple circuit shown, complete the chart by filling in the blank spaces with the appropriate symbol: means the quantity increases means the quantity decreases • means the quantity remains constant

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Practice Problems

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Solutions for Odd Numbered Questions 1.

I = 21.8 A P = 39.9 mW

P = 78.2 W R = 7.82 k

E = 682 V P = 46.5 W

R = 20.0 P = 10 W

I = 21.6 mA P = 163 mW

R = 5.2 k P = 2.82 mW

P = 224 W R = 151 k

I = 53.8 mA P = 565 mW

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Introduction to Parallel Circuits

Worked Through Examples 1. Find the total resistance of the following circuit.

There are two options that may be taken to find RT. The product-over-sum formula or the sum of the reciprocal formula. This first example will use the product-over-sum formula: RT =

R1 X

First, substitute the circuit values in correct powers of ten form. 2

RT =

8 .0 X 10 8 .0 X 10

X 3 .3 X 10

3 2

33 .0

X 10

To add, the exponents of the numbers in the denominator (or bottom) of this equation must be the same. Changing the 3.3 X 10+3 to 33.0 X 10+2, you have 2

RT =

8 .0 X 10 8 .0 X 10

X 3 .3 X 10

3 2

33 .0

X 10

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RT =

8 .0 X 10

X 3 .3 X 10

Multiply the numbers on top. (Remember to add the exponents when multiplying.) 26 .4 X 10

RT =

X 10

Now you may divide 26.4 X105 by 41 X 102. (Remember to do this you bring the bottom exponent up above the division line and change its sign.) RT =

26 .4 X 10

Then combine these top exponents RT =

26 .4 X 10

RT = 6.44 X 102 = 644 2. Find the total resistance of the circuit shown below.

This time the reciprocal formula will be used to solve this problem. First, substitute the circuit values into the formula: RT = RT =

1 1 / R1

1 / R2

1 / R3

1 1 1 .0 X 10

1 3

8 .2 X 10

1 2

1 .5 X 10

Find the reciprocals of the resistance values. (Divide the resistance value into 1.) This gives you the individual conductances which go into the bottom of this equation.

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RT =

1 1 X 10

1 .22

X 10

6 .67

X 10

Add all individual conductances in the bottom of this equation. (Remember to change all exponents to the same number; here, 10-3.) RT =

1 2 .89

X 10

Now divide 2.89 X 10-3 into 1 to find the total resistance. RT = 3.46 X 102 = 346 3. Find the approximate resistance of the circuit shown below. (Use the quickest method.)

Since the three resistors are equally sized, the “shortcut” formula may be used. Req =

R5 N

R5 = Same size resistor resistance (4.7 k ) N = Number of resistors (3). Substituting Req = Change 4.7 k

4 .7 k 3

to proper powers of ten notation Req =

4 .7 X 10

Divide Req = 1.57 X 103 = 1570

4. Define the term “Branch.”

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A branch in an electrical circuit is simply a separate path through which electrical current can flow. In other words, a series circuit has only one branch. A parallel circuit has two or more branches. 5. Find the Req of the following circuit.

This problem will be worked using an SR-50 type calculator. This reciprocal formula will be used to solve the problem. Enter the first number in correct powers of ten form. 1.5 EE 3 Press the reciprocal key and store that number in the calculator’s memory. 1/X

STO

Enter the other two numbers using the same procedure as outlined above except rather than pressing the “STO” key, press the key which adds the displayed number to the number held in memory. 2.2 EE 3 1/X 3.3 EE 3 1/X The reciprocals of all three numbers have been found and added together. This number may be recalled by pressing the “RCL” key. RCL Now, this number must be divided into 1, so press the reciprocal key. 1/X Your answer appears on the display. 7.021276596 02 April, 2010 Page 120

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This number is rounded to 7.02 X 102 or 702

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Practice Problems The key objective of this lesson has been achieved if you can calculate the total resistance of any basic parallel circuit. To gain some practice in this area, the problems below are provided. Depending upon the approach you use to solve these problems and how you round off intermediate results, your answers may vary slightly from those given here. However, any differences you encounter could only occur in the third significant digit of your answer. If the first two significant digits of your answers do not agree with those given here, recheck your calculations. Find RT for each of the following circuits.

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10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

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15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

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Answers 1. 8.52 2. 3.07 k 3. 368 k 4. 53.5 5. 1.58 k 6. 49.7 7. 918 8. 13.8 9. 846 10. 1.71 k 11. 174 k 12. 133 13. 27.9 k 14. 1.55 15. 9.41 16. 679 m 17. 268 k 18. 129 19. 907

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Series-Parallel Circuits

Worked Through Examples 1. In the series-parallel circuit shown, calculate the total equivalent resistance and all unknown voltages and currents using Ohm’s law and circuit reduction techniques.

First, you can find RT by circuit reduction techniques. Since R2 and R3 are of equal value and are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance, R2,3 can be found with the formula: Req =

RS N

RS equals 18 kilohms and N equals 2, so: R2,3 = Req =

RS N

k 2

R2,3 = 9 k After the first circuit reduction, the circuit now consists of R1 in series with R2,3 as shown.

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You can find the total resistance of the circuit by simply using the series circuit law which says that the total resistance of a series circuit equals the sum of the individual resistances. In formula form: RT = R 1 + R 2 + R 3 + . . . or in this case: RT = R1 + R2.3 RT = 15 k

+9k

RT = 24 k

Once you know the total resistance, you can find the total current by using Ohm’s law in the form IT = ET/RT. Substituting the appropriate values in the formula gives: IT =

ET RT

72 24

V k

IT = 3 mA This total current can be used to find the voltage across R1. Remember, since R1 is in series with the rest of the circuit, the total current must flow through R1. If you use Ohm’s law in the form E = 1 X R and substitute the appropriate values, you get:

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ER1 = IT X R1 ER1 = 3 mA X 15 k ER1 = 45 V

Remember that in a series circuit the total voltage equals the sum of the individual voltage drops. You know the total voltage and the voltage across R1; the remainder of the voltage must be dropped across R2,3. In formula form: ER2,3 = ET -ER1 ER2,3 = 72 V - 45 V ER2,3 = 27 V You can find the current through R2 or R3 by using Ohm’s law in the form I = E/R. Remember, R2 and R3 are in parallel, so they have the same 27 volts dropped across them. IR2 =

ER2 R2

27 18

V k

IR2 = 1.5 mA

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Since R2 and R3 have the same resistance value and the same voltage across them, they have the same current flow through them. You could have found the current through R2 and R3 by simply realizing that they must divide the total current of 3 milliamps equally between them. IR2 = IR3 =

3 mA

If R2 and R3 did not have the same resistance value, you could have found the current through R3 by subtraction. You know the total current and you know the current through R2, so the remainder of the current must flow through R3. IR3 = IT - IR2 IR3 = 3 mA - 1.5 mA IR3 = 1.5 mA and the circuit is completely solved. 2. In the series-parallel circuit shown, calculate the total equivalent resistance and all unknown voltages and currents using Ohm’s law and circuit reduction techniques.

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In order to keep track of all the knowns and unknowns, make a chart as shown on the next page and fill in the known values. Then you can fill in the unknown values as you calculate them.

Notice that since R1 and R2 are in parallel, the voltage across them is the same. You can use Ohm’s law in the form I = E/R to calculate IR1 and IR2. IR1 = Power Production Training

E R1 R1

IR2 =

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ER2 R2

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IR1 =

36 10

V k

IR1 = 3.6 mA

IR2 =

ER2 R2

IR2 = 2.4 mA

You know that the total current in a parallel circuit equals the sum of the individual branch currents. In this circuit, the total current flows through the combination of R1 and R2; you can add IR1 and IR2 to get IT. IT = IR1 + IR2 IT = 3.6 mA + 2.4 mA IT = 6.0 mA You can now fill in these calculated values on the chart as shown.

Looking at the chart or the circuit, you can see that you know two things about R5, you know its resistance, and you know the current flow through it. You can use Ohm’s law in the form E = I X R to find ER5. ER5 = IR5 X R5 ER5 = 2 mA X 27 k ER5 = 54 V Because R3, R4, and R5 are in parallel, they have 54 volts dropped across them. If they all have the same voltage across them and they all have the same resistance value, then the

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current must be the same through all of them. Since IR5 equals 2 milliamps, the IR3 and IR4 also equal 2 milliamps each.

You could check your work at this point by adding IR3, IR4 and IR5 to see that they do add up to the total current of 6 milliamps. Because R6 is in series with the rest of the circuit, the total current must flow through it. Thus IR6 equals 6 milliamps and you can now use this information to find ER6. ER6 = IR6 X R6 ER6 = 6 mA X 2 k ER6 = 12 V As shown, you know the voltage across and current flow through each portion of the circuit.

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The voltage across R1 and R2 is the same; ER1,2 equals 36 volts. The voltage is also the same across R3, R4, and R5; ER3,4,5 equals 54 volts. You also know the voltage across R6; ER6 equals 12 volts. From series circuit laws, these voltages can be added to find the total voltage applied to the circuit. ET = ER1,2 + ER3,4,5 + ER6 ET = 36 V + 54 V + 12 V ET = 102 V

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The only unknown quantity remaining to be calculated is the total resistance. This can be found in either of two ways. One way is to use Ohm’s law in the form: RT =

ET IT

When you substitute the appropriate values in the formula, you obtain: 102

RT =

6 mA

RT = 17 k Circuit reduction techniques can also be used to find RT. First, consider R1 in parallel with R2. Using the product-over-the-sum formula: R1,2 = R1,2 = R1,2 =

10 10

(1 X 10 (1 X 10

R1,2 =

R1 X

X 15

4 4

) X (1 .5 X 10 )

(1 .5 X 10

1 .5 X 10 2 .5

4 4

) )

8 4

R1,2 = 0.6 X 10+4 = 6 k

Because R3, R4 and R5 all have the same resistance value, they can be reduced to an equivalent resistance by using the formula:

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Req = Req =

RS N

k 3

Req = 9 k

These three resistance are now in series and can be added to find RT. RT = R1,2 + R3,4,5 + R6 RT = 6 k

+9k

+2k

RT = 17 k and this agrees with the previous calculation. The chart can be filled in as shown, and the circuit is completely solved.

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Practice Problems The key objective of this lesson has been achieved if you can analyze any series parallel circuit in a variety of situations such as: 1. Given a series-parallel wired network of resistors, calculate their equivalent resistance, Req. 2. Given a series-parallel circuit with all of the resistor values and the applied voltage labeled, calculate any or all of the voltages across and currents through each resistor, as well as the total circuit current and equivalent resistance. 3. Given a series-parallel circuit schematic with several known values labeled, calculate any unknown values required. The practice problems that follow are designed to give you as much practice as you may need in these areas. It is suggested that you work enough of these to enable you to approach and analyze any series-parallel circuit without referring back to the lesson. Depending upon the approach you use in solving these problems and how you round off intermediate results, your answers may vary slightly from those given here. However, any differences you encounter should only occur in the third significant digit of your answer. If the first two significant digits of your answers do not agree with those given here, recheck your calculations.

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Problems 1. Find Req for the following circuits.

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Answers

1. Req = 58.5 k

2. Req = 7.39 k

3. Req = 199

4. Req = 1.61 k

5. Req = 76.9 k

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Introduction to Kirchhoff’s Law

Worked Through Examples 1. Write a node equation for the diagram shown below, substitute the appropriate currents and solve the equation for I5. Also indicate the direction of I5.

From Kirchhoff’s current law you know that whatever current arrives at a junction must equal the current that leaves the junction. Write down the currents entering the junction on one side of an equals sign, and then write down the currents that leave the junction on the other side of the equals sign. Leaving = Entering I1 + I 4 = I 2 + I 3 On which side of the equals sign does I5 belong? If you substitute the values for I1 through I4 in the equation, you will see. Leaving = Entering 2 A + 2.5 A = 3.5 A + 4 A 4.5 A = 7.5 A Obviously, 4.5 amps does not equal 7.5 amps, so I5 must belong with the 4.5 amp leaving the junction.

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Leaving = Entering 4.5 A + I5 = 7.5 A In order for the currents leaving to equal the currents entering, I5 must be the right value so that there will be 7.5 amps leaving and entering the junction. I5 should be 3 amps leaving the junction. You can prove this by subtracting 4.5 amps from each side of the equation. 4.5 A + I5 = 7.5 A -4.5 A

-4.5 A I5 =

Thus, I5 does equal 3 amps and it must leave the junction.

2. Write a loop equation for the circuit shown below using electron current, and write another loop equation using conventional current.

Step One: Assign a current direction. Any direction is fine but more than likely the actual direction of electron current is counterclockwise since E1 is larger than E2. Assume that the electron current is flowing in the counterclockwise direction and label it accordingly.

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Step Two: Traverse the circuit and write down all the source voltages and IR voltages according to the rules presented in this lesson. If you start at the positive terminal of E1 and move through the circuit counterclockwise, you should get: +E1 (since you go through E1 in the same direction it pushes electron current) -IR3 (since you traverse R3 in the direction of electron current) -IR2 (since you traverse R2 in the direction of electron current) -E2 (since you go through E2 against the direction it is pushing electron current) -IR1 (Since you traverse R1 in the direction of electron current).

When you set this equal to zero, the loop equation for this circuit, considering electron current, is: E1 - IR3 - IR2 - E2 - IR1 = 0 To write a loop equation for conventional current, traverse the loop again and write down the voltages according to your rules. Assume the same direction for current as before. If you start at the same point (the positive terminal of E1) and mover through the circuit counterclockwise, you should get: -E1 (since you go through E1 against the direction it pushes conventional current) -IR3 (since you traverse R3 in the assumed direction for conventional current) -IR2 (since you traverse R2 in the assumed direction for conventional current)

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+E2 (since you go through E2 in the same direction it pushes conventional current) -IR1 (Since you traverse R1 in the assumed direction for conventional current).

This loop equation for this circuit, considering conventional current, is: -E1 - IR3 - IR2 + E2 - IR1 = 0

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3. Solve each of the equations from the previous example for the current. Electron Current Equation E1 - IR3 - IR2 - E2 - IR1 = 0

First, substitute the appropriate values from the circuit into the equation. 12 - 0.56 kI - 2.2 kI - 8 - 1.5 kI = 0 When the two source voltages are added algebraically, they yield 4. 4 - 0.56 kI - 2.2 kI - 1.5 kI = 0 You can combine the I terms to get: 4 - 4.26 kI = 0 Transpose the 4, remembering to change its sign. - 4.26 kI = -4 Divide both sides of the equation by -4.26 k. 4 .26

4 .26

I = 0.939 mA or 939 A Since this answer is positive, the assumed direction for the electron current (counterclockwise) is correct. Conventional Current Equation -E1 - IR3 - IR2 + E2 - IR1 = 0 First, substitute the appropriate values from the circuit into the equation. April, 2010 Page 150

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- 12 - 0.56 kI - 2.2 kI + 8 - 1.5 kI = 0 When the two source voltages are added algebraically, they yield -4. This, as you will see, will make a difference in your answer. - 4 - 0.56 kI - 2.2 kI - 1.5 kI = 0 Combine the I terms to get: - 4 - 4.26 kI = 0 Transpose the 4, remembering to change its sign. - 4.26 kI = 4 Divide both sides of the equation by -4.26 k. 4 .26

4 .26

4 4 .26

I = -0.939 mA or -939 A Since this answer is negative the assumed direction for the conventional current was wrong, and so you know that the conventional current is actually flowing clockwise. You know, if you thought about this answer for a minute, it makes a great deal of sense. The solution to the electron current equation told you that the electron current was flowing counterclockwise. Recall that electron and conventional current have the same effect in a circuit; they just flow in opposite directions. Thus, you know that conventional current for this circuit must flow in the clockwise direction.

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4. Write the loop and node equations for the following circuit using electron current. Then solve the equations for the branch currents, including their directions, and use these currents to find the voltage drop across each resistor. Also indicate the polarity of each voltage drop. E1=18V

R2=20k

First Step: Assign a direction for each current and label it accordingly.

Immediately, you can see from Kirchhoff’s current law that at junction point A: I1 = I 3 + I 2 Second Step: Traverse each loop and write down all the voltages you encounter with their correct signs.

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Loop 1

18 - 10 kI1 - 15 kI3 = 0 (counterclockwise from point B)

Loop 2

10 - 20kI2 + 15 kI3 = 0 (counterclockwise from point A)

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Third Step: Simplify the equations. If you substitute I3 + I2 for I1 in the first equation, you will then have only two unknowns, and you will have two equations with which to find the two unknowns. 18 - 10 k (I3 + I2) - 15 kI3 = 0 10 - 20 kI2 + 15 kI3 = 0 In the first equation, multiply I3 and I2 by - 10k. 18 - 10 kI3 - 10 kI2 -15 kI3 = 0 You can now combine the I3 terms. 18 - 10 kI2 - 25 kI3 = 0 If you multiply both sides of this equation by -2, you can then add it to your equation for loop 2. (-2) (18 - 10 kI2 - 25 kI3) = (0) (-2) -36 + 20 kI2 + 50 kI3 = 0 Fourth Step: Add the equations to eliminate one of the unknown currents, thus enabling you to calculate the other current. -36 + 20 kI2 + 50 kI3 = 0 10 - 20 kI2 + 15 kI3 = 0 -26

+ 65 kI3 = 0 65 kI3 = 26

I3 =

26 65

= 0.4 mA = 400 A

Since this answer is positive, you know that the assumed direction for I3 is correct. Fifth Step: Substitute the value of I3 in one of the previous loop equations to find I1 or I2. Loop 2

10 - 20 kI2 + 15 kI3 = 0

10 - 20 kI2 + 15 k (0.4 mA) = 0 When 15 k is multiplied by 4 mA, the result is 6, which can then be added to the 10. 10 - 20 kI2 + 6 = 0 Power Production Training

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16 - 20 kI2 = 0 Transpose and divide. - 20 kI2 = - 16 20 20

16 20

I2 = 0.8 mA = 800 A This answer is also positive, so the assumed direction for I2 is correct. Sixth Step: Substitute I2 and I3 in the node current equation to find I1. I1 = I 3 + I 2 I1 = 0.4 mA + 0.8 mA I1 = 1.2 mA Seventh Step: Use Ohm’s law to calculate the voltage drops across the resistors. ER1 = I1 X R1 ER1 = 1.2 mA X 10 k ER1 = 12 V

ER2 = I2 X R2 ER2 = 0.8 mA X 20 k ER2 = 16 V

ER3 = I3 X R3 ER3 = 0.4 mA X 15 k ER3 = 6 V Recall the rule for determining the polarity of the voltage across a resistor, which states that electron current flows through a resistor from minus to plus or from the negative side to the positive side. Thus, the voltage drops and their polarities are as shown on the next page. April, 2010 Page 154

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5. Write the loop and node equations for the circuit shown in example 4 using conventional current. Then solve the equations for the branch currents, including their directions. Also indicate the polarities of the voltage drops produced by these conventional currents. First Step: Assign a direction for each current and label it accordingly.

Then, from Kirchhoff’s current law, the node current equation for node A is: I2 = I 3 + I 1 Second Step: Traverse each loop and write down all the voltages you encounter with their correct signs. Loop 1

18 + 15 kI3 - 10 kI1 = 0 (clockwise from point C)

Loop 2

10 - 15 kI3 - 20 kI2 = 0 (clockwise from point D)

Third Step: Simplify the equations. If you substitute I3 + I1 for I2 in the second equation, you will have two equations with two unknowns. You can than easily solve the equations for the unknown currents. Power Production Training

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10 - 15 kI3 - 20 kI2 = 0 10 - 15 kI3 - 20 k (I3 + I1) = 0 Multiply I3 and I1 by - 20 k. 10 - 15 kI3 - 20 kI3 - 20 kI1 = 0 You can combine the I3 terms. 10 - 35 kI3 - 20 kI1 = 0 If you divide both sides of this equation by -2, you can add it tot he equation for loop 1. (10 - 35 kI3 - 20 kI1) ÷ (-2) = (0) ÷ (-2) -5 + 17.5 kI3 + 10 kI1 = 0 Fourth Step: Add the equations to eliminate one of the unknown currents, thus enabling you to find the other current. Loop 1

18 + 15 kI3 - 10 kI1 = 0

Loop 2

-5 + 17.5 kI3 + 10 kI1 = 0 13 + 32.5 kI3

32.5 kI3 = -13 I3 =

13 32 .5 k

I3 = -0.4 mA = - 400 A Since this answer is negative, you know that the assumed direction for I3 is wrong and that the conventional current I3 actually flows down through R3. Fifth Step: Substitute the value of I3 in one of the previous loop equations to find I1 or I2. Loop 1

18 + 15 kI3 - 10 kI1 = 0 18 + 15 kI3 (-0.4 mA) - 10 kI1 = 0

When 15 k is multiplied by -0.4 mA, the result is -6, which can then be added algebraically to the 18. 18 -6 - 10 kI1 = 0 12 - 10 kI1 = 0

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Transpose and divide. - 10 kI1 = -12 10 kI 10 k

12 10 k

I1 = 1.2 mA This answer is positive, so you know that the assumed direction for I1 is correct. Sixth Step: Substitute I1 and I3 in the node current equation to find I2: I2 = I 3 + I 1 I2 = -0.4 mA + 1.2 mA I2 = 0.8 mA or 800 A The answer is positive so the assumed direction for I2 is correct. Seventh Step: Use Ohm’s law to find the voltage drops across the resistors. Since the answers for the currents have the same numerical value as in the previous example, the voltage drops will be the same as they were before, or: ER1 = 12 V ER2 = 16 V ER3 = 6 V In determining the correct polarities of these voltage drops, remember two things: 1. Conventional current flows through resistors from plus to minus. 2. I3 is actually flowing down through R3.

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Practice Problems Depending upon the approach you use in solving these problems and how you round off intermediate results, your answers may vary slightly from those given here. However, any differences you encounter should only occur in the third significant digit of your answer. If the first two significant digits of your answers do not agree with those given here, recheck your calculations. 1. Write the node equations for the following diagrams.

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April, 2010 Page 160

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Answers 1.a.

I 1 + I2 = I3

1.b.

I 1 = I2 + I3

1.c.

I 1 + I3 = I2

1.d.

I 4 + I3 = I1 + I2

1.e.

I 1 = I2 + I3 + I4 + I5

2.a.

Loop 1 — Start at point A and trace the loop ccw. 10 -22I1 - 15 - 10I1 = 0 Loop 2 — Start at point B and trace the loop ccw. 15 -18I3 - 15I3 = 0

2.b.

Loop 1 — Start at point A and trace the loop ccw. 20 -27I1 - 33I3 = 0 Loop 2 — Start at point B and trace the loop ccw. 25 + 33I3 - 39I2 = 0

2.c.

Loop 1 — Start at point A and trace the loop ccw. 30 - 56 kI1 - 68 kI3 Loop 2 — Start at point B and trace the loop ccw. 40 - 68 kI3 - 47I2

2.d.

Loop 1 — Start at point A and trace the loop ccw. 80 - 1.2 kI1 = 0 Loop 2 — Start at point B and trace the loop ccw. -1.5 kI2 - .68 k (I2 + I3) + 1.2 kI1 = 0

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Loop 3 — Start at point C and trace the loop ccw. - 20 + 1.5 kI2 = 0 2.e.

Loop 1 — Start at point A and trace the loop ccw. 50 - 2.7 kI1 + 3.9 kI3 = 0 Loop 2 — Start at point B and trace the loop ccw. 75 - 3.3 kI2 - 3.9 kI3 = 0

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3.a.

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Capacitors and the RC Time Constant

Worked Through Examples 1. Find the time constant of a circuit containing a 10-kilohm resistor in series with a 0.82-microfarad capacitor. To solve this problem, you must use the time constant formula T = RC. Substituting in the circuit values, the formula reads T = 10 k X 0.82 F. In scientific notation the values are: T = 1.0 X 104 X 8.2 X 10-7. 1.0 X 104 X 8.2 X 10-7 T = 8.2 X 10-3 seconds (s) or 8.2 milliseconds (ms) 2. Find the time constant of this circuit:

Use the formula: T = RC. First substitute in the circuit values: R = 100 k , C = 20 F. T = 100 k , C = 20 F T = 1.0 X 105 X 2.0 X 10-5 T = 2.0 seconds

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3. How long will it take the capacitor in the following circuit to reach full charge?

First, use the time constant formula T = RC T = RC T = 8.2 M

X 560 F

T = 8.2 X 106 X 5.6 X 1010 T = 4.59 X 10-3 s or 4.59 ms You must remember that the RC time constant formula you just worked gives you one time constant (in seconds). Five time constraints are required for full charge. So, multiply the time constant by 5 to arrive at the correct answer. 4.59 X 10-3 X 5 22.95 X 10-3 or 2.3 X 10-2 seconds The capacitor will be fully charged after 2.3 X 10-2 seconds or 23 milliseconds. 4. Find the voltage across the capacitor in the circuit shown below 500 milliseconds after the switch is closed. (Use the universal time constant graph.)

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First, you should calculate the time constant of the circuit. T = RC T = RC T = 10 k , X 33 F T = 1.0 X 104 X 3.3 X 10-5 T = 3.3 X 10-1 or 330 ms Now look at the universal time constant graph. Time (horizontal axis) is measured in time constants. To convert this chart to seconds, multiply 330 milliseconds by each of the time divisions. For example: 1 X 330 ms = 330 ms 1.5 X 330 ms = 495 ms 2 X 330 ms = 660 ms 3 X 330 ms = 990 ms 4 X 330 ms = 1.32 s 5 X 330 ms = 1.65 s Now these values are applied to the universal time constant graph.

Look at the chart and locate the 500 millisecond position on the horizontal axis. Now trace directly upward (following the dotted line) and note the point on the charging curve that is reached at 500 ms. April, 2010 Page 168

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Tracing to the left from that point, across the graph, you can see that the amplitude at the intersection point is about 0.78 or 78% of the full charge voltage; 0.78 X 100 V. So after 500 ms. the capacitor is charged to 78 volts. 5. Find the charge in coulombs of the capacitor in problem 4, at the end of 500 milliseconds. The formula for calculating the charge stored in a capacitor is Q = CE where Q = the stored charge in coulombs C = the capacitance in farads E = the voltage between the capacitor plates Substituting the values of capacitance and voltage: Q = 33 F X 78 V Q = 3.3 X 10-5 X 7.8 X 101 Q = 2.57 X 10-3 coulombs (or 2.57 millicoulombs) 6. Using the universal time constant graph, calculate the time required for the capacitor shown below to charge to 55 volts.

First, calculate the circuit’s time constant using the formula: T = RC T = RC T = 470 k , X 18 F T = 4.7 X 105 X 1.8 X 10-5 T = 8.46 s

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Now, the universal time constant curve may be used as follows in solving this problem. First, examine the vertical axis. On this axis the fraction of the maximum voltage is located. The maximum voltage here is 120 volts: the total applied voltage. What fraction of 120 volts is 55 volts? Thus, 55/120 equals 0.458. This is the fraction of the applied voltage 55 volts represents. Now, locate 0.458 on the vertical axis of the universal time constant graph. Trace to the right horizontally (a dotted line is drawn in for you to follow) until you intersect the charging curve.

Locate that point on the curve, and then trace directly down to the horizontal axis. At this point you read the time elapsed: 0.6 time constants. You know that 1 time constant is 8.46 seconds, so the total elapsed time is 0.6 X 8.46 or 5.08 seconds. 7. A “strobe” flash attachment for a camera has a bulb that requires 0.02 coulomb of charge at 450 volts in order to flash properly. What is the minimum size capacitor that could be satisfactorily used? Since both the quantity of charge (Q) and voltage (E) are known, the equation C = Q/E can be used to solve this problem. Simply substitute in the capacitor values and solve for C. C = Q/E C=

0 .02

450

(coulomb

)

C = 0.0000444 F or 44.4 F

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8. Find the approximate frequency of oscillation in the circuit shown here.

The circuit shown above is a “relaxation oscillator.” It operates on the basis of its RC time constant. The bulb shown connected across the capacitor is an NE-2 neon glow lamp. These lamps require a certain voltage (called the “firing voltage”) in order to light. Once lit, the voltage across the lamp must fall significantly below the firing voltage before it will turn “off.” Typical “on” and “off” voltages for neon glow lamps are: 75 volts “on” and 50 volts “off.” This means that the typical NE-2 will not “light” until the voltage across it reaches 75 volts, but once lit, will continue to glow until the voltage drops below 50 volts. Before the lamp lights, it has a very high resistance (essentially an open circuit). Once the lamp is on, its resistance drops to a low value. Consider what will happen when one of these lamps is connected across a capacitor as shown in the circuit above. When power is applied to the circuit, the capacitor will begin to charge up to the source voltage. The rate of charging will be controlled by the RC time constant. When the capacitor reaches 75 volts, the neon bulb (which is connected in parallel with the capacitor) will also have 75 volts applied across it. At this instant, the bulb will light, allowing heavy current flow, and thus discharging the capacitor very quickly. As the capacitor discharges, its voltage will drop down below the 50 volts required to keep the neon bulb lit. The bulb goes out and the capacitor again charges up to the 75 volts required to fire the bulb, and the cycle is repeated again and again. As you can see, there are several factors that affect the rate of blinking (or oscillation) of the bulb: the resistor size, the size of the capacitor, the supply voltage, and the characteristics of the individual neon bulb.

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To analyze this problem, first calculate the RC time constant of the circuit and plot it on a universal time constant graph. T = RC T = 7.5 M , X 10.2 F T = 7.5 X 106 X 2.0 X 10-7 T = 1.5 s

1 X 1.5 s = 1.5 s 1.5 X 1.5 s = 2.25 s 2 X 1.5 s = 3.0 s 3 X 1.5 s = 4.5 s 4 X 1.5 s = 6.0 s 5 X 1.5 s = 7.5 s To give a clearer picture of the operation of this circuit, these values are plotted on the horizontal axis of the universal time constant graph above. The lamp fires at 75 volts, and causes the voltage across the capacitor to rapidly drop to 50 volts so that the lamp then goes out. Voltage across the capacitor, plotted as time goes on, will appear as shown on the next page.

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In order to find the time duration between flashes, simply look back at the Universal Time Constant graph you just filled in. Locate 75 volts and 50 volts, and measure the time elapsed between these two points. Seventy-five volts occurs at approximately 1.4 time constants or 2.1 seconds. Fifty volts occurs at 0.7 time constants or 1.055 seconds. The time elapsed is the difference between the two times. Subtract and you get 2.1 s 1.05 s = 1.05 s. So the lamp will blink once every 1.05 seconds. Dividing 60 by 1.05 yields a frequency of 57 flashes per minute. 9. Calculate the total capacitance of this circuit.

Problems of the type shown above give many students headaches because capacitors “add” just the opposite of the way resistors do. Parallel capacitors are added by using a formula similar to the series resistance formula: CT = C1 + C2 + C3 ... Series capacitors must be added by using a formula similar to the parallel resistance formula: CT =

1 1 / C1

1/C2

1 C 3 .. .

To solve this problem, the 4-microfarad and the 6-microfarad capacitors should be combined by using the parallel capacitance formula: CT = C1 + C2 + C3 ... CT = 4 F + 6 F CT = 10 F

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April, 2010 Page 173

The 10 microfarads of capacitance must be combined with the 8 microfarads of capacitance by using the series capacitance formula. CT =

1 1 / C1

1/C2

1 C 3 .. .

CT =

1 / 10

1/8 1

CT =

0 .1

CT =

0 .125 1 0 .225

CT = 4.44 F 10. Calculate the total capacitance of the following circuit.

First, find the total capacitance of the upper circuit branch using the series capacitance formula: CT =

1 1 / C1

1/C2

CT = CT =

1 C 3 .. .

1 1/ 4

1/8 1

0 .25

CT =

0 .125 1 0 .375

CT = 2.67 F

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Now the total capacitance may be found by combining the two parallel capacitances using the parallel capacitance formula CT = C1 + C2 + C3 ... CT = 2.67 F + 6 F CT = 8.67 F

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Practice Problems Depending upon the approach you use in solving these problems and how you round off intermediate results, your answers may vary slightly from those given here. However, any differences you may encounter should only occur in the third significant digit of your answer. If the first two significant digits of your answers do not agree with those given here, recheck your calculations. Answers are on page 336.

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April, 2010 Page 178

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Answers 1.a.

T = 7.05s

1.b.

T = 165 ms

1.c. T = 4.73 ms 1.d.

560 s

1.e.T = 5.6 s

2.a.

CT = 1 F

2.b.

CT = 1.33 F

2.c.

CT = 5 F

2.d.

CT = 0.75 F

2.e.

CT = 10 F

3.a.

Q = 900 C

3.b.

Q = 3.6 mC

3.c. C = 390 F 3.d.

E = 1.33 V

3.e.Q = 72 C

4.a.

T = 2.2s

4.b.

11 s

4.c. 39.5 V 4.d.

75.8 V

4.e.1.03 s

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Inductors and the L/R Time Constant

Worked Through Problems 1. Describe the magnetic field around a simple coil of the type shown in the figure below. What is the key effect of a coil’s magnetic field on the behavior of coils in dc circuits?

Solution: A magnetic field surrounds any wire carrying current. When this wire is wound into a coil, the magnetic field is concentrated inside the coil as shwon by the magnetic lines of force drawn in the figure. This concentrated magnetic field is in effect an energy storage reservoir. Energy is stored when current attempts to increase through the coil, and this energy is released back into the circuit when current attempts to decrease through the coil. For this reason, coils are said to oppose changes in current in circuits.

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2. Find the following values for the circuit shown below. a. Time constant b. Maximum steady-state current c. Voltage across the resistor after two time constants

The time constant for this circuit may be found by using the inductive time constant formula, T = L/R. In this circuit, L is equal to 5 henries and R is equal to 820 ohms. 5/820 = 0.0061 second, or 6.1 milliseconds. This is one time constant for this circuit. Five time constants are required for the circuit to reach its steady-state condition. The maximum steady-state current in an inductive circuit is determined by using Ohm’s law. The total voltage, E (here 25 volts), must be divided by the total circuit resistance RT to give you the steady-state current. In this circuit, the total resistance is taken to be 820 ohms, the value of the resistor performing the calculation: 25 V/820 = 30.5 mA. This value of current will be flowing in the circuit after five time constants. The value of current flowing after only two time constants may be found by using the universal time constant graph. First, locate the two time constant mark on the horizontal line. Trace the graph line up until it intersects the “current buildup” curve. The intersection point is labeled 86%. This means that at this point, the circuit current is at 86% of the steady-state value. So, the current value at 2 time constants may be found by multiplying 0.86 X 30.5 mA. The current flowing after two time constants is equal to 26.2 mA. The value of the current at any time constant point may be determined by using the universal time constant graph in the manner just presented. To find the voltage across the resistor at the end of two time constants, multiply the current at that point (26.2 milliamps), times the resistance (820 ohms), to get your answer (21.5 volts). April, 2010 Page 182

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3. Find the following values for the circuit shown below: a. Time constant b. Maximum steady-state current c. Voltage across the resistor after 2 milliseconds (2 ms).

Solution: a. T = L/R T = 12/2700 T = 4.44 ms b. ET/RT = IT 5/2700 = 1.85 mA = steady-state current c. To find the circuit current at 2 milliseconds, the first thing to do is locate 2 milliseconds on the horizontal axis of the time constant graph. This axis of the graph is measured out in terms of time constants. You must get the chart to read out in seconds. This may be done by dividing 2 milliseconds by 4.44 milliseconds, to determine the exact percentage 2 milliseconds is as compared to 4.44 milliseconds. Two ms.4.44 ms = 0.45. In terms of time constants, 2 milliseconds is equal to 0.45 (0r 45%) of one time constant. Locate 0.45 on the horizontal axis of the graph. Trace upward until that graph line intersects the current buildup curve. The intersection occurts at approximately 37%. This indicates that the current flowing at this point is 37% of the steady-state current, or 0.37 X 1.85 mA which is equal to 0.68 mA. To find the voltage across the resistor, multiply this current (0.68 milliamps) times the resistance (2700 ohms) to yield the voltage (1.84 volts).

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Practice Problems Solve the following problems related to inductance and the L/R time constant, using the time constant formula and the universal time constant graph given below. Depending upon the approach you use in solving these problems and how you round off intermediate results, your answers may vary slightly from those given here. However, any differences you encounter should only occur in the third significant digit of your answer. If the first tdwo significant digits of your answers do not agree with those given here, recheck your calculations.

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Answers 1. Circuit time constant = 167 nanoseconds Imax = 66.7 microamps Voltage across the 150-kilohm resistor after two time constants = 8.6 volts 2. Circuit time constant = 107 milliseconds Imax = 33.3 milliamps Voltage across the 150-ohm resistor after 50 milliseconds = 1.86 volts 3. Circuit time constant = 500 microseconds Imax = 24 milliamps Voltage across the 500-ohm resistor after 1 milliseconds = 10.3 volts 4. Circuit time constant = 25 microseconds Imax = 1 milliamp Voltage across the 100-kilohm resistor after three time constants = 95 volts 5. Circuit time constant = 13.3 microseconds Imax = 26.7 milliamps Voltage across the 750-ohm resistor after 25 microseconds = 17 volts

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Inductance and Transformers

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Transformers

Basic Construction

A device in which the property of mutual inductance is put to practical use is the transformer. A typical transformer is shown in Figure 1. A typical standard transformer consists of two separate coils, wound on a common iron core as shown in the schematic of Figure 2 and considered to have a coefficient of coupling of one. One coil is called the primary; the other is called the secondary. As a result of mutual inductance, a changing voltage across the primary will induce a changing voltage in the secondary. Thus, if the primary winding is connected to an ac source and the secondary to a load resistor, the transformer is able to transfer power from the primary to the secondary to the load resistance as illustrated in Figure 3. By having more or fewer turns in the secondary as compared to the primary, the primary voltage may be either stepped-up or stepped-down to provide the necessary operation voltage for the load.

Figure 1 A Typical Transformer

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Figure 2 Schematic Drawing of a Transformer

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Figure 3 Turns Ratio versus Voltage Recall that if a coil has a larger number of turns, a larger voltage is induced across the coil. With a smaller number of turns the voltage is less. Therefore it is easy to see that by having more or fewer turns in the secondary as compared to the primary, as shown in Figures 4 and 5, the voltage may either be stepped up or stepped down to provide the necessary operating voltage for the load.

Figure 4 Step-up Transformer

Figure 5 Step-down Transformer

The ratio of the number of turns in a transformer secondary winding to the number of turns in its primary winding is called the turns ratio of a transformer. The equation for turns ratio is: turns ratio

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(8-14)

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Figure 6 Transformer Used to Calculate Turns Ratio In the transformer schematic shown in Figure 6, the number of turns in its primary is 10 and the number of secondary turns is 5. Using equation 8-14, the turns ratio of the transformer can be calculated.

turns ratio

5 10 1 2

Transformers have a unity coefficient of coupling. Therefore, the voltage induced in each turn of the secondary winding (Eis) is the same as the voltage self-induced (EiP) in each turn of the primary, as shown in Figure 7. The voltage self-induced in each turn of the primary equals the voltage applied to the primary divided by the number of turns in the primary. This can be written:

Figure 7 Transformer Voltage Induction

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EiP =

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Figure 8 Example Transformer Used to Calculate Self-Induced Voltage in Primary Turns Figure 8 shows a schematic of a transformer in which there are 8 turns in the primary and 8 volts ac is applied to it. Using equation 8-15, the voltage self-induced in each primary turn can be calculated. E

8 8 IV

In this example, one volt is induced in each turn of the primary. If each turn of the secondary has the same voltage induced in it, then the secondary voltage is equal to the number of secondary turns times the induced voltage. This can be written E

EP S

(8-16)

Or rearranging, E

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NS P

(8-17)

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The transformer shown in Figure 8 has 4 turns in its secondary. Using equation 8-16, the secondary voltage can be calculated. E

EP S

= 4

8 8

= 4V

The transformer's secondary voltage is 4 volts—4 turns times 1 volt per turn.

Figure 9 Example for Calculating Turns Ration and ES In another example, shown in Figure 9, there are 1000 turns in the primary winding of the transformer and there are 10,000 turns in its secondary winding. Thus, the turns ratio is

turns ratio

10, 000 1, 000 10 1 10

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Therefore, the secondary voltage would always be 10 times greater than the primary voltage. If the primary voltage is 10 volts ac, then the secondary voltage will be E

10E

10(10V) 100V

Figure 10 Example for Calculating Transformer IS Transformer secondary current is a function of secondary voltage and load resistance. If a 1 kilohm load is placed across the secondary as shown in Figure 10, then the secondary current, by Ohm’s law, will be IS

ES R

100V 1k 0.1A 100mA

The secondary current is 100 mA. The transformer secondary acts as an ac voltage source to the load.

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Figure 11 Relationship of Transformer Primary and Secondary Windings Primary-to-Secondary Current Relationship Modern transformers, with coefficient of coupling considered to be one, and with no real power consumed in the windings or the core can be considered to have no loss, as shown in Figure 11. Therefore, the power in the primary is considered to be the same as the power in the secondary, PP = PS. Since P = EI, PP = PS EP IP = ES IS Rewriting this, I

(8-18)

Note that the current relationship is the inverse of the voltage relationship. Thus, if the voltage is stepped up in a transformer by a factor of 10, the current must have been stepped down the same factor. This may be stated another way using equations 8-17 and 818. Since Then

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Thus, in the example shown in Figure 10, if EP is 10 volts, ES is 100 volts, and if IS, the secondary current, is 100 milliamperes, the primary current, IP, is calculated as: I

100

100mA

10 (1 0 ) 1 00 mA 1 000 mA 1A

The primary current in the transformer is one ampere. Performing the following calculations it can be determined that both the primary and secondary power are equal; both are 10 watts. PP

E PIP (10V) (1A) 10W

E SIS (100v) ( 100mA) 10, 000mW 10W

The transformer, then, either steps up or steps down the voltage and current, but conserves power from the primary to the secondary. However, transformers do not affect the frequency of the ac voltage they act upon. If the frequency of the primary voltage and current is 60 hertz, then the secondary voltage and current will have a 60 hertz frequency. Recall that a transformer will not operate with a dc voltage. That is because dc voltage is non-changing and cannot produce an expanding or collapsing magnetic field to cut the secondary windings to produce a secondary voltage.

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Variable-output Transformers

Figure 12 Variable-Output Autotransformer Some manufactures produce a type of autotransformer that has a variable output voltage. As shown in Figure 12, this is accomplished by making the secondary tap a wiper-type of contact (much like a wire-wound variable resistor). By varying the position of the wiper contact, various output voltages are obtainable. Of course, the same effect could also be produced using a variable tap on the secondary of a two-winding transformer as shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13 Variable-Output Transformer Multiple-secondary Transformers Transformers are also produced which have multiple-secondary and center-tapped secondary windings in order to provide for circuits requiring several different voltage levels. A schematic for a typical multiple-secondary transformer is shown in Figure 14.

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Figure 14 Multiple-Secondary Power Transformer Transformer Lead Color Code Transformer leads are usually color coded using a standardized EIA wire color coding technique. A chart showing the standard EIA color code is provided in the appendix. Not all manufacturers use this particular color code so there will be some variation. Transformer Specifications Manufacturers provide specifications for transformers. The specifications enable a user to select a transformer that best meets the requirement of the application. Transformer specifications usually include primary voltage and frequency, secondary voltage(s), impedance, dc winding resistance, and current capabilities. For example, the power transformer of Figure 14 has the following specifications: Primary voltage:

April, 2003 Page 188

117V, 60 Hz

High-voltage secondary:

240V-0-240V (center-tapped) 150 mA

Low-voltage secondary:

6.3V, 2A

Low-voltage secondary:

5V, 3A

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Figure 15 Typical Power, Audio, and Filament Transformers Power transformers are multiple secondary winding transformers with both high and low voltage secondaries. Typical power, audio, and filament transformers are shown in Figure 15. Power transformers originally were developed for use with vacuum tube circuits in which high voltage for power supply levels and low voltage for vacuum tube filaments (heaters) were needed. The primary ratings specify the voltage and frequency at which the transformer is designed to be operated. The secondary ratings specify the voltages available from the various secondary windings as well as the maximum current which the secondaries can supply. Audio transformers are designed for input/output audio applications and are rated according to their primary and secondary impedances, power capabilities (wattage), and turns ratio. They have only a single secondary winding. Filament transformers are single secondary low voltage, high current (several amperes, typically) transformers rated according to their primary voltage and frequency, secondary output voltage and maximum output current capabilities.

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Inductive Reactance

Now that inductance, self- inductance, and transformer action have been discussed, the next step is a discussion of the effect of an inductor in an ac circuit. Inductance is measured and inductors are rated in henrys. An inductor’s effect in a circuit depends on the inductance and is expressed in a quantity called inductive reactance. Inductive reactance is a quantity that represents the opposition that a given inductance presents to an ac current in a circuit, such as is shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16 Simple Inductive Circuit Like capacitive reactance, it is measured in ohms and depends upon the frequency of the applied ac voltage and the value of the inductor. Inductive reactance can be expressed as follows: X

2 fL

(8-21)

Where X 2

induc tive reac tance (ohms) = 6.28

f = frequenc y(Hz) L

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induc tanc e( H)

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April, 2010 Page 191

The constant of 2 comes from the number of radians in one cycle of a sinusoidal ac waveform. Because of this, this equation is valid only for calculating the inductive reactance of an inductor with sinusoidal alternating current applied.

Figure 17 Example Circuit for Calculating Inductive Reactance Figure 17 shows a simple inductive circuit. The inductor’s value is 10 millinery. Applied frequency is 5 kilohertz. Using equation 8-21, inductive reactance, XL, is calculated: X

2 fL = (6.28) (5 x 10

Hz) (10 x 10

= 3 14

Note from equation 8-21 that if either the frequency or the inductance is increased the inductive reactance increases. Figure 18 shows graphically how a change in either the frequency or inductance changes the inductive reactance, XL. Note that the inductive reactance increases linearly with frequency and inductance. As the frequency or inductance increases, the inductor’s opposition to the flow of current increases.

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Figure 18 Frequency and Inductance Versus Inductive Reactance These plots of inductive reactance versus frequency and inductive reactance versus inductance shown in Figures 19 and 20 will be examined more closely to help you understand these relationships more clearly.

Figure 19 Inductive Reactance Versus Frequency for an Inductance of 10 mH

Figure 20 Inductive Reactance Versus Inductance at a Frequency of 159 Hz

Figure 19 shows the inductive reactance versus frequency for an inductance of 10 millihenrys. It can be seen that as frequency increases so does the inductive reactance. For example, at a frequency of 159 hertz, the inductive reactance is 10 ohms. However, at a frequency of 1590 hertz the inductive reactance is now 100 ohms. Inductive reactance is directly proportional to frequency. In Figure 20, which plots inductive reactance versus inductance at a frequency of 159 hertz, it can be seen that as inductance increases so does the inductive reactance. For example, with an inductance of 0.01 henrys (10 millihenrys), inductive reactance is 10 ohms. However, if the inductance is increased to 1 henry, the inductive reactance is now 1 kilohm. Inductive reactance also is directly proportional to inductance. The basic equation for inductive reactance may be rewritten in two other forms:

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XL 2 L

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(8-22)

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Or X

(8-23)

2 f

Equation 8-22 can be used to determine the frequency at which an inductance will produce a certain reactance. Equation 8-23 can be used to determine the inductance that will have a certain reactance at a certain frequency. For example, equation 8-22 can be used to determine the frequency at which an 8.5 henry inductor will have an inductive reactance of 5 kilohms. f

2 L 5000 ( 628 )( 8 .5 H ) 93.7Hz

Equation 8-23 can be used to determine the value of inductance needed to produce an inductive reactance of 10 kilohms at a frequency of 300 kilohertz. f

2 f 10x10

3 3

(6.28)(300 x10 0.531 x 10

Hz)

= 5.31mH

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Power Calculations for Parallel-Inductive Circuit Similar calculations can be performed to obtain the reactive power for the parallel inductive circuit. Recall in that circuit IL1 = 15.9 milliamperes and IL2 = 31.8 milliamperes. Remember the voltage across each branch is the applied voltage. The reactive power of L1 is: P XT

(40V) (15.9mA) 6 36 mVAR

The reactive power of L2 is: P L2

E L2

(40V) (31.8mA) 1272 mVAR

The total reactive power is: P XT

P L1

P L2

636mVAR

+ 1272mVAR

1908 mVAR

Also, the total reactive power in a parallel circuit equals the total applied voltage times the total current. P XT

(40V) (47.7mA) 1908 mVAR

Figure 21 Example Series Inductive Circuit

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Summary This lesson has been an introduction to the inductor, how it is structured, its schematic symbol, its typical units of inductance, and how it functions in typical circuits. The phase relationship of the voltage and current in an inductive circuit were discussed. Mutual inductance and how it is put to use in transformers, and how to make voltage and current calculations for transformer circuits were also discussed. Services and parallel inductive problems were solved, and reactive power calculations were described.

Worked-Out Examples 1. Describe the action of an inductor in a circuit.

Solution:: A magnetic field surrounds any wire carrying current. As current increases through a wire, the magnetic field expands through the wire inducing a counter current which opposes the increase in the initial current. As current decreases in a wire, the magnetic field collapses through the wire inducing current in the same direction and aiding the current which is trying to decrease, thus opposing the decrease of current. when the wire is wound into a coil, the magnetic field produced by each turn of wire in the coil interacts with adjacent turns increasing this inductive effect. This coil of wire is called an inductor. If it is placed in a circuit such that a changing current passes through it, it will oppose the change (increase or decrease) of current.

2. Define inductance.

Solution: Inductance is the property of a circuit which opposes any change in current.

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3. If the current through a 8 millihenry-coil is changing at the rate of 10 milliamperes every 5 seconds, determine the rate of change of the current in amperes per second, and the voltage (CEMF) induced across the coil. a. Rate of change of current

10mA

5 sec

2mA/sec

b. CEMF=EL i

(8mH) (2mA/sec) -6

= 16 x 10

= (8 x 10

V = 16

-3

H) (2 x 10

-3

A/sec)

4. If two coils are connected in series as shown, determine their total inductance with no mutual inductance, and their mutual inductance and total inductance considering mutual inductance (aiding and opposing) if k=0.4.

Solution:: a. LT (no LM) = L1 + L2 = 18H + 2H = 20H b. LT (aid) = L1 + L2 + 2LM = 18H + 2H + 2(2.4H) = 18H + 2H + 4.8H = 24.8H where c.

k 0.4

L1 x L2 36H

0.4

18H x 2H

0.4 (6) H

2.4H

LT (oppose) = L1 + L2 - 2LM = 18H + 2H - 2(2.4H) LT (oppose) = 20H - 4.8H = 15.2H

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5. a. Given the circuit shown solve for the total inductance of the parallel-connected inductors if there is no mutual inductance.

Solution:: L L

L 1 xL

(10mH) (40mH)

10mH

400

40mH

8mH

b. Determine their mutual inductance and total inductance (aiding and opposing) if mutual inductance exists with a coefficient of 0.2. Solution: L

L 1 xL

0.2

10mH x 40mH

0 .2

400 mh

0 .2 ( 20 )mH

4mH (L

(aid)

(oppose)

) (L 2

)

(10mH 10mH

4mH) 40mH

(40mH)

(14mH) (44mH)

2( 4mH)

(58mH)

1 0 .62 mH

) (L 2

LM )

(10mH

4mH)

10mH

40mH

(40mH

- 4mH)

2( 4mH)

5.14mH

6. If the primary voltage applied to a transformer is 120 VAC and the secondary voltage output is 480 VAC, determine the turns ratio for the transformer and state whether it is a step-up or step-down transformer. Solution: a. Turns ratio

480V

120V

or written in NS:NP form, 4:1 b. This is a step-up transformer since the secondary voltage is higher than the primary voltage. Power Production Training

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7. Given the transformer with turns-ratio and load-resistance specified, determine the following values: Esec, Isec, Ipri, Ppri and Psec. (Assume 100 percent efficiency.)

Solution: N

sec

N E

I sec

pri

15V

15V (This is also 50 hertz.

5.56mA

2.7k

I sec

pri

P sec = E

sec

Note that P

5.56mA

= 0.556mA

P pri = E pri x I sec

150V

sec

R =

= (150V) (0.556mA) = (15V) (0.56mA)

= 83.4mW = 83.4mW

= P sec !

pri

8. If the primary voltage is 120 VAC with a primary current of 10 mA and the secondary voltage is 12.6 VAC with a secondary current of 85 millamperes, determine the percent efficiency of this transformer. Explain the loss of power between primary and secondary. Solution: a.

P pri

E ec

pri

p ri

E sec x I

(120V) (10mA) 120mW

(12.6V) (85mA)

sec

P % Eff

x 100%

1071mW 1200mW

1071mW

x 100% 0.893 x 100%

89.3%

b. The power loss (10.7 percent of the primary power) Between primary and secondary is due to eddy currents, hysteresis and winding resistance heat loss.

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9. Calculate the inductive reactance of the inductors at these specified frequencies: a. 10 millihenry coil operated at a frequency of 5 kilohertz: Solution: X

2 fL = (6.28) (5kHz)

= 314 x 10

= (6.28) (5 x10

-3

Hz) (10 x10

= 314

b. An 8.5 henry coil operated at a frequency of 60 hertz: Solution: X

2 fL = (6.28) (60Hz) (8.5H)

= 3202.8

= 3.2k

c. A 45 microhenry coil operated at a frequency of 1250 kilohertz: Solution: X

2pfL

= (6.28) (1250kHz) (45

= 3 5 3250 x10

10.

-3

H) = (6.28) (1250 x 10

Hz) (45 x 10

-6

= 353.25

Calculate the value of the inductor needed to produce the reactance specified at the given frequency:

a. A reactance of 1megohm at a frequency of 40 kilohertz: Solution: L

XL 2pf

1M (628) (2240kHz)

1 x 10

6 3

(6.28) (40 x 10

3.9H

Hz)

b. A reactance of 47 kilohms at a frequency of 108 megahertz: Solution: L

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XL 2 f

47k (6.28) (1080MHz)

1 x 10

(6.28) (108 x 10

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Hz)

3.9H

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0.0693 x 10

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0.0693mH

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11.

Calculate the frequency at which the given inductors will have the specified reactance. a. A reactance of 50 kilohms with a 4 millihenry inductor:

Solution: X

50k

2 f = 2 x 10

(6.28) (4mHz) 6

50 x 10

50 3

( 6.28) ( 5 x 10

25 .12

x 10

= 2MHz

b. A reactance of 25 ohms with a 5 millihenry inductor: Solution: X

12.

2 f

25k (6.28) (5mHz)

25 3

( 6.28) ( 5 x 10

0 .0314

796Hz

Solve for the values indicated using the circuit shown. (Assume LM = 0.)

a. LT

= __________

EL1 = __________

XL1 = __________

EL2 = __________

XL2 = __________

PLI

XLT = __________

PL2 = __________

PLT = __________

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= __________

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= __________

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Solution: a.

2 fL

(6.28) (25kHz) (15mH)

= 2355

= 2.36k

2 fL

(6.28) (25kHz) (85mH)

= 1345

= 1.35k

13.

April, 2003 Page 204

2 fL

P L1

2 .36 k

16V

I LI X

100mH

13 .35 k

ITX

= 1345

(1.02mA) (2.36k

I L2 X L2

ITX

E L1 I L1

E L1 I T

(2 .4 V) ( 1 .02mA)

E L2 I T

(13 .6 ) (1 .02mA)

P L2

E L2 I L2

P Lt

P L1 P L2

P LT

EAIT

15 .7 k

= 15.7k

1.02mA

15.7k

85mH

( 6.28) (25kHz) (100mH)

15mH

X L1 + X L2

(1.02mA) (13.35k

2 .45 mVAr

13 .87 mVAR

(16 V) (1.02mA)

) = 2 .4V ) = 1 3.6V = 2 .45VAR = 1 3.87mVAR = 1 6.32mVAR or

= 1 6.32mVAR

Solve for the values indicated using the circuit shown. (Assume LM = 0.)

LT = __________

IL2

= __________

XL1 = __________

= __________

XL2 = __________

PLI

= __________

XLT = __________

PL2 = __________

IL1 = __________

PLT = __________

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Solution: L1

(1.8mH) (8.6mH)

2 fL

I L1

= 1695.6

= 1.7k

(6.28) (150kHz) (8.6mH)

= 8101.2

= 8.1k

)

50V

(1 .7 k ( 1 .7 k

10 .4

) ( 8 .1 k

)

) + (8.1k

)

13 .77 9 .8

50V

I L2

I L1 + I L2

P L1

E L1I L1

P L2

E L2 I L2

P LT

EAIT

P LT

P LI + P L2

= 1403.6

1 .4 k

= 1.4k

2 9 .4 mA

1.7k

X L2

+ 8.6mH)

( 6.28) (150kHz) (1.49mH)

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(6.28) (150kHz) (1.8mH)

EA X

= 1.49mH

X L2

2 fL

(1.8mH

) (X

15 .48

8.11k

20.4mA E A I L1 E A I L2

6 .2 mA

+ 6 .2mA)

= 3 5.6mA

(50 V) ( 2 9.4mA) (50 V ) ( 6 .2mA)

(50 V) (35.6mA) 1470mVAR

= 1 470mVAR = 3 10mVAR

1780mVAR or + 3 10mVAR

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=1780mVAR

April, 2010 Page 205

Practice Problems 1. State a short definition of inductance. 2. The concepts of two men are used to explain CEMF for inductors. Who are they? 3. If an iron core is extracted from a coil, will the coil’s inductance increase or decrease? Why? 4. As the number of turns of wire used in a coil increases, does the value of its inductance increase or decrease? 5. If two coils are placed in proximity of one another and one coil produces 4000 lines of flux, 3500 of which cut the second coil, what is the coefficient of coupling of these two coils? k= _______. 6. What is the range of values for the coefficient of coupling? _______ to _______. (upper and lower limits for k); 7. In the circuit shown, two coils are connected in series. Determine their total inductance with no mutual inductance. Then determine their mutual inductance and their combined inductance considering mutual inductance (aiding and opposing). k = 0.4, L1 = 4 henrys. and L2 = 9 henrys.

a. LT(no LM) = _______. b. LM = _______. c. LT(aid) = _______. d. LT(opp) = _______.

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8. In the circuit shown, determine the total inductance of the two parallel-connected inductors if there is no mutual inductance. Then determine their mutual inductance and total inductance (aiding and opposing) if they have a coefficient of coupling of 0.2.

a. LT(no LM) = _______. b. LT(aid) = _______. c. LT(opp) = _______. d. LM = _______. 9. a.

Sketch the magnetic field about the coil in the drawing.

Indicate north and south poles.

b. Sketch the magnetic field about the conductor. Show its direction.

10.

If the current through a coil is changing at the constant rate of 40 milliamperes every 10 seconds, determine the rate of change of the current in amperes per second. If the coil is rated at 5 millihenrys, determine the voltage across the coil. a. ROC of I = ____________ A/sec b. EL = ____________.

11.

What coefficient of coupling is desired for transformers? k = ____________.

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12.

If the primary voltage is greater than the secondary voltage of a transformer, is it known as a step-up or step-down transformer?

13.

What two types of core losses in a transformer are associated directly with the core? a. ____________. b. ____________.

14.

If EP = 120 VAC and ES = 25.2 VAC, determine the turns ration (NS:NP) of the transformer. Turns ratio = ____________.: ____________.

15.

What type of transformer does not provide electrical isolation of primary to secondary?

16.

If the primary voltage is 240 VAC with a primary current of 8 milliamperes and the secondary voltage is 50 VAC with a secondary current of 33 milliamperes, determine the percent efficiency of this transformer: % eff = ____________.

17.

A transformer has a turns ration (NS:NP) of 1:4.5, has 120 VAC applied to its primary, and has a 6.8 kilohm resistor as a load on its secondary. Determine the secondary voltage, the secondary current, and primary current. (Assume 100 percent efficiency.) a. Esec = ____________. b. Isec = ____________. c. Ipri = ____________.

18.

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When 40 VAC is applied to the primary of a transformer, a secondary current of 8 milliamperes flows through a one kilohm resistor connected across the secondary. 2 milliamperes of

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primary current is present. Determine the percent efficiency of the transformer and transformer and its turns ratio. a. % eff = ____________. b. NS:NP = ____________.

19.

Calculate XL for a 2 millihenry coil operated at frequencies of 100 hertz, 5 kilohertz, and 1.2 megahertz. a. XL (f = 100 hertz) = ____________. b. XL (f = 5 kilohertz) = ____________. a. XL (f = 1.2 megahertz) = ____________.

20.

From Problem 19, you see that as the frequency applied to an inductor increases, the inductive reactance of it ____________. (increases, decreases).

21.

What is the value of an inductor needed to produce a reactance of 482 kilohms at a frequency of 5 kilohertz? L = ____________.

22.

What is the frequency at which an inductor of 8.5 henrys will have an inductive reactance of 1 kilohms? f = ____________.

23.

Solve for the indicated values using the circuit shown. (Assume LM = 0.)

X L1 = ____________.

EL2 = ____________.

XL1 = ____________.

PLI

XLT = ____________.

PL2 = ____________.

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= ____________.

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= ____________.

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EL1 = ____________.

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24.

Solve for the values using the circuit shown. (Assume LM = 0.)

L T = ____________.

= ____________.

XL1 = ____________.

ELI

= ____________.

XL2 = ____________.

EL2 = ____________.

IL1 = ____________.

IL2

XLT = ____________.

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= ____________.

April, 2010 Page 211

Quiz 1. Inductance is the property of a circuit that a. opposes any change in voltage. b. opposes current. c. opposes any change in current. d. opposes any change in frequency. 2. Which of the factors listed below does not govern the value of a coil? a. Number of turns b. The type of core material used c. The size (cross-sectional area) of the coil d. The length of the coil e. The size of the wire used in the coil 3. The rise or fall of current through an inductor in a circuit is said to be: a. exponential b. logarithmic c. linear d. none of the above 4. The voltage that appears across an inductor in a circuit is called____________. and appears only when ____________.the inductor. a. counter emf; the current is constant through b. voltage drop; the voltage changes across c. counter EMF; the current increases or decreases through d. voltage drop; the voltage is constant across

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5. The phase relationship of the voltage across an inductor and the current passing through it in an ac (sinusoidal) circuit is such that a. the voltage lags the current by 90 degrees. b. the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees. c. the voltage leads the current by 90 degrees. d. the voltage and current are in phase. 6. Determine the mutual inductance of two inductors having a coefficient of coupling of 0.8 if their values are 16 millihenrys and 5 millihenrys. a. 64 mH b. 7.2 mH c. 2 0mH d. 36 mH 7. If the two inductors are series-connected and their values are 16 henrys and 25 henrys, determine their total inductance if they have no mutual inductance. a. 9.76H b. 6.4H c. 20H d. 41H 8. If the two inductors of Question 7 have a coefficient of coupling of 0.2, determine their total inductance aiding and opposing. a. 41H, 49H b. 49H, 33H c. 49H, 41H d. 41H, 8H

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9. If a transformer has a turns ration of 1:19 (NS:NP), an applied primary voltage of 120 VAC, 60 hertz, and a secondary load resistance of 3.3 kilohms, determine the quantities specified below. (Assume 100 percent efficiency.) a. Esec =____________________ b. Isec =_____________________ c. Ipri =______________________ c. Ipri = Psec __________________ 10.

A transformer has a greater primary current than secondary current under load conditions. Is it a step-up or step-down transformer?

11.

Using the inductive reactance equation and given the data specified below, solve for the unknown quantity.

12.

20 k

, f = 3.5MHz

: L =

________

600 k

, L = 10mH

: f =

________

15 mH , f = 5kHz : X

____________

Determine the requested voltages, currents and power for these two circuits. (Assume LM = 0.)

Circuit a

April, 2003 Page 214

Circuit b

XLT = ____________.

ELI = ____________.

IL1

= ____________.

EL2 = ____________.

IL2

= ____________.

PLI = ____________.

m. PL1 = ____________.

PL2 = ____________.

PLT = ____________.

LT = ____________.

= ____________.

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Practice Problems Answers (Pg 202-206) 1. Inductance is the property of a circuit that opposes any change in current. 2. Oersted and Faraday 3. Decrease. This happens because the permeability of iron is more than that of air and as the iron core is extracted, the permeability of the core is reduced; Thus, the value of the inductance of the coil is decreased.

4. Increase 5.

Common Total

3500 4000

0 .875

6. 0 to 1 (k = 0, no mutual inductance to k = 1, unity coupling) 7. a. 13H b. 2.4H c. 17.8H d. 8.2H 8. a. 3.45 mH b. 4.9 mH c. 1.84 nG d. 2 mH 9.

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April, 2003 Page 216

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10. a. ROC

of i

b. E L

4x10

A/sec

11.

k=1

12.

Step-down

13.

a. hysteresis b. eddy currents

14. N

25 .2 V

120 V

4.76

1 : 4 .76

15. Autotransformer 16.

P pri

1920 mW;

% eff

P sec P pri

P sec

1650 mW

x 100

1650mW 1920mW

x 100

= 85.9%

17. a. 26.67V B. 3.92 mA c. 0.87 mA 18. a. 80% b. 1:5 (NS:NP) 19. a. 1 .26 b.

62 .8

c. 15 k 20. Increases 21. 15.4H 22. 18.7 Hz

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23. a.

62 .8

f. 16.7V

314

g. 175mVAR

376 .8

53mA

i. 1060mVAR

3.3V

24. a. 1.875mH

7.07A

25V

c. 14 .13

25V

5.3A

i. 1.77A

3.53

April, 2003 Page 218

885mVAR

4 .71

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Alternating-Current Circuits

This chapter shows how to analyze sine-wave ac circuits that have R, XL, and XC. How do we combine these three types of ohms of opposition, how much current flows, and what is the phase angle? These questions are answered for both series and parallel circuits. The problems are simplified by the fact that in series circuits XL is at 90° and XC at -90°, which are opposite phase angles. Then all of one reactance can be canceled by part of the other reactance, resulting in only a single net reactance. Similarly, in parallel circuits, IL and IC have opposite phase angles. These currents oppose each other for one net reactive line current. Finally, the idea of how ac power and dc power can differ because of ac reactance is explained. Also, types of ac current meters are described including the wattmeter. Important terms in this chapter are: apparent power

VAR unit

power factor

voltampere unit

real power

wattmeter

More details are explained in the following sections: 1. AC Circuits with Resistance but no Reactance 2. Circuits with XL Alone 3. Circuits with XC Alone 4. Opposite Reactances Cancel 5. Series Reactance and Resistance 6. Parallel Reactance and Resistance 7. Series-Parallel Reactance and Resistance 8. Real Power 9. AC Meters 10. Wattmeters 11. Summary of Types of Ohms in AC Circuits 12. Summary of Types of Phasors in AC Circuits Power Production Training

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AC Circuits with Resistance but No Reactance Combinations of series and parallel resistances are shown in Figure 1. In Figure 1a and b, all voltages and currents throughout the resistive circuit are in the same phase as the applied voltage. There is no reactance to cause a lead or lag in either current or voltage.

(a)

(b)

Figure 1 AC Circuits with Resistance but no Reactance (a) Resistances R1 and R2 in series (b) Resistances R1 and R2 in Parallel Series Resistances For the circuit in Figure 1a, with two 50- resistances in series across the 100-V source, the calculations are as follows: R

= R1 + R

I = V1

100

V 2 = IR

1 2

= 50 + 50 = 100

1 x 50

1A 50 V

= 1 x 50 = 50 V

Note that the series resistances R1 and R2 serve as a voltage divider, as in dc circuits. Each R has one-half the applied voltage for onehalf the total series resistance. The voltage drops V1 and V2 are both in phase with the series current I, which is the common reference. Also I is in phase with the applied voltage VT because there is no reactance.

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Parallel Resistances For the circuit in Figure 1b, with two 50- resistances in parallel across the 100-V source, the calculations are I1 =

100

I2 =

2 A

I T = I1 + I 2 = 2 + 2 = 4 V

With a total current of 4 A in the main line from the 100-V source, the combined parallel resistance is 25 . This RT equals 100 V/4A for the two 50- branches. Each branch current has the same phase as the applied voltage. Voltage VA is the reference because it is common to both branches. Practice Problems — Section-1 Answers at End of Chapter a. In Figure 1a, what is the phase angle between VT and I? b. In Figure 1b, what is the phase angle between IT and VA?

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Circuits with XL Alone The circuits with XL in Figures 2 and 3 correspond to the series and parallel circuits in Figure 1, with ohms of XL equal to the R values. Since the applied voltage is the same, the values of current correspond because ohms of XL are just as effective as ohms of R in limiting the current or producing a voltage drop.

Figure 2 Series Circuit with XL Alone (a) Schematic diagram (b) Phasor diagram Although XL is a phasor quantity with a 90° phase angle, all the ohms of opposition are the same kind of reactance in this example. Therefore, without any R or XC, the series ohms of XL can be combined directly. Similarly, the parallel IL currents can be added. XL Values in Series For Figure 2a, the calculations are X

I =

= X

VT R

+ X 100

V 2 = IX

= 50 + 5 0 = 100 1A

100

V 1 = IX

= 1 + 5 0 = 50 V 2

= 1 + 5 0 = 50 V

Note that the two series voltage drops of 50 V each add to equal the total applied voltage of 100 V.

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With regard to the phase angle for the inductive reactance, the voltage across any XL always leads the current through it by 90°. In Figure 2b, “I” is the reference phasor because it is common to all the series components. Therefore, the voltage phasors for V1 and V2 across either reactance, or VT across both reactances, are shown leading “I” by 90°. IL Values in Parallel For Figure 3a the calculations are I1 =

I2 =

100

X L1

100

2 A

I T = I1 + I2 = 2 + 2 = 4 A

Figure 3 Parallel Circuit with XL Alone (a) Schematic Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram These two branch currents can be added because they both have the same phase. The angle is 90° lagging the voltage reference phasor as shown in Figure 3b. Since the voltage VA is common to the branches, this voltage is across X L , and X L . Therefore VA is the reference phasor for parallel circuits. 1

Note that there is no fundamental change between Figure 2b, which shows each XL voltage leading its current by 90°, and Figure 3b, showing each XL current lagging its voltage by -90°. The phase angle between the inductive current and voltage is still the same 90°. Power Production Training

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Practice Problems— Section-2 a. In Figure 2, what is the phase angle of VT with respect to I? b. In Figure 3, what is the phase angle of IT with respect to VA?

Circuits With XC Alone

Figure 4 Series Circuit With XC Alone (a) Schematic Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram Again, reactances are shown in Figures 4 and 5 but with XC values of 50 . Since there is no R or XL, the series ohms of XC can be combined directly. Also the parallel IC currents can be added. XC Values in Series For Figure 4a, the calculations for V1 and V2 are the same as before. These two series voltage drops of 50 V each add to equal to total applied voltage. With regard to the phase angle for the capacitive reactance, the voltage across any XC always lags its capacitive charge and discharge current “I” by 90°. For the series circuit in Figure 4, “I” is the reference phasor. The capacitive current leads by 90°. Or, we can say that each voltage lags “I” by -90°.

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IC Values in Parallel For Figure 5, VA is the reference phasor. The calculations for I1 and I2 are the same as before. However, now each of the capacitive branch currents or the IT leads VA by 90°.

Figure 5 Parallel Circuit With XC Alone (a) Schematic Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram Practice Problems — Section 3 a. In Figure 4, what is the phase angle of VT with respect to I? b. In Figure 5, what is the phase angle of IT with respect to VA?

Opposite Reactances Cancel In a circuit with both XL and XC, the opposite phase angles enable one to cancel the effect of the other. For XL and XC in series, the net reactance is the difference between the two series reactances, resulting in less reactance than either one. In parallel circuits, the IL and IC branch currents cancel. The net line current then is the difference between the two branch currents, resulting in less total line current than either branch current. XL and XC in Series For the example in Figure 6, the series combination of a 60- XL and a 40- XC in Figure 6a and b is equivalent to the net reactance of the 20- XL shown in Figure 6c. Then, with 20 as the net reactance across the 120-V source, the current is 6 A. This current

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lags the applied voltage VT by 90° because the net reactance is inductive.

Figure 6 When XL and XC Are in Series, Their Ohms of Reactance Cancel (a) Series Circuit (b) Phasors for XL and XC With Net Resultant (c) Equivalent Circuit with Net Reactance of 20 of XL For the two series reactances in Figure 6a, the current is the same through both XL and XC. Therefore, the voltage drops can be calculated as VL or IXL = 6 A x 60

= 360 V

VC or IXC = 6 A x 40

= 240 V

Note that each individual reactive voltage drop can be more than the applied voltage. The sum of the series voltage drops still is 120 V, however, equal to the applied voltage. This results because the IXL and IXC voltages are opposite. The IXL voltage leads the series current by 90°; the IXC voltage lags the same current by 90°. Therefore, IXL and IXC are 180° out of phase with each other, which means they are of opposite polarity and cancel. Then the total voltage across the two in series is 360 V minus 240 V, which equals the applied voltage of 120 V. If the values in Figure 6 were reversed, with an XC of 60 and an XL of 40 , the net reactance would be a 20- XC. The current would be 6 A again, but with a lagging phase angle of -90° for the capacitive voltage. The IXC voltage would then be larger at 360 V, with an IXL value of 240V, but the difference still equals the applied voltage of 120 V. XL and XC in Parallel

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In Figure 7, the 60- XL and 40- XC are in parallel across the 120-V source. Then the 60- XL branch current IL is 2 A, and the 40- XC branch current IC is 3 A. The XC branch has more current because its reactance is less than XL. In terms of phase angle, IL lags the parallel voltage VA by 90°, while IC leads the same voltage by 90°. Therefore, the opposite reactive branch currents are 180° out of phase with each other and cancel. The net line current then is the difference between 3 A for IC and 2 A for IL, which equals the net value of 1 A. This resultant current leads VA by 90° because it is capacitive current. If the values in Figure 7 were reversed, with an XC of 60 and an XL of 40 , IL would be larger. The IL then equals 3 A, with an IC of 2 A. The net line current is 1 A again but inductive, with a net XL.

Figure 7 When XL and XC are in Parallel, Their Branch Currents Cancel (a) Parallel Circuit (b) Phasors for Branch Currents IC and IL With Net Resultant (c) Equivalent Circuit With Net Line Current of 1 A for IC Practice Problems — Section 4 a. In Figure 6, how much is the net XL? b. In Figure 7, who much is the net IC?

Series Reactance and Resistance In this case, the resistive and reactive effects must be combined by phasors. For series circuits, the ohms of opposition are added to find Z. First added all the series resistances for one total R. Also combine all the series reactances, adding the same kind but subtracting opposites. The result is one net reactance, indicated X. Power Production Training

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It may be either capacitive or inductive, depending on which kind of reactance is larger. Then the total R and net X can be added by phasors to find the total ohms of opposition for the entire series circuit.

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Magnitude of Z After the total R and net reactance X are found, they can be combined by the formula Z

(24-1)

The circuit’s total impedance Z is the phasor sum of the series resistance and reactance. Whether the net X is at +90° for XL or -90° for XC does not matter in calculating the magnitude of Z. An example is illustrated in Figure 8. Here the net series reactance in Figure 8b is a 30- XC. This value is equal to a 60- XL subtracted from a 90- XC as shown in Figure 8a. The net 30- XC in Figure 8b is in series with a 40- R. Therefore Z

( 40 ) 1600 Z

X 2

( 30 ) 900

2500

Figure 8 Impedance Z of Series Circuit (a) Resistance R, XL, and XC in Series (b) Equivalent Circuit With One Net Reactance (c) Phasor Diagram I = V/Z The current is 100 V/50 in this example. or 2 A. This value is the magnitude, without considering the phase angle.

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Series Voltage Drops All the series components have the same 2-A current. Therefore, the individual drops in Figure 8a are VR = IR = 2 x 40 = 80 V VC = IXC = 2 x 90 = 180 V VL = IXL = 2 x 60 = 120 V Since IXC and IXL are voltages of opposite polarity, the net reactive voltage is 180 minus 120 V, which equals 60 V. The phasor sum of IR at 80 V and the net reactive voltage IX of 60 V equals the applied voltage VT of 100 V. Phase Angle of Z The phase angle of the series circuit is the angle whose tangent equals X/R. The angle is negative for XC but positive for XL. In this example, X is the net reactance of 30 for XC and R is 40 Then tan = -0.75 and is -37°, approximately.

The negative angle for Z indicates lagging capacitive reactance for the series circuit. If the values of XL and XC were reversed, the phase angle would by +37°, instead of -37°, because of the net XL. However, the magnitude of Z would still be the same. More Series Components How to combine any number of series resistances and reactances is illustrated by Figure 9. Here the total series R of 40 is the sum of 30 for R1 and 10 for R2. Note that the order of connection does not matter, since the current is the same in all series components.

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Figure 9 Series AC Circuit With More Components Than Figure 9, But The Same Values of Z, I, and The total series XC is 90 , equal to the sum of 70 for X C and 20 for X C . Similarly, the total series XL and 60 . This value is equal to me sum of 30 for X L and 30 for X L . 1

The net reactance X equals 30 , which is 90 of XC minus 60 of XL. Since XC is larger than XL, the net reactance is capacitive. The circuit in Figure 9 is equivalent to Figure 8, therefore, since a 40- R is in series with a net XC of 30 . Practice Problems — Section 5 a.

In Figure 8, how much is the net reactance?

In Figure 9, how much is the net reactance?

Parallel Reactance and Resistance With parallel circuits, the branch currents for resistance and reactance are added by phasors. Then the total line current is found by the formula I

2 R

(24-2)

Calculating IT As an example, Figure 10a shows a circuit with three branches. Since the voltage across all the parallel branches is the applied 100 V, the individual branch currents are IR

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100 V 25 100 V 25

100 V

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The net reactive branch current IX is 3 A, then, equal to the difference between the 4-A IL and the 1-A IC, as shown in Figure 10b. The next step is to calculate IT as the phasor sum of IR and IX. Then I

I 4

16 I

3 9

5 A

The phasor diagram for IT is shown in Figure 10c.

Figure 10 Total Line Current IT of Parallel Circuit (a) Branches of R, XL, and XC in Parallel (b) Equivalent Circuit with IR and Net Reactive Branch Current (c) Phasor Diagram

ZT=VA/IT This gives the total impedance of a parallel circuit. In this example, ZT is 100 V/5 A, which equals 20 . This value is the equivalent impedance of all three branches in parallel across the source. Phase Angle

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The phase angle of the parallel circuit is found from the branch currents. Now is the angle whose tangent equals IX/IR. For this example, IX is the net inductive current of the 3-A IL. Also, IR is 4 A. These phasors are shown in Figure 10c. Then is a negative angle with the tangent of -3/4 or -0.75. This phase angle is -37°, approximately. The negative angle for IT indicates lagging inductive current. The value of -37° is the phase angle of IT with respect to the voltage reference VA. When ZT is calculated as VA/IT for a parallel circuit, the phase angle of ZT is the same value as for IT but with opposite sign. In this example, ZT is 20 with a phase angle of +37°, for an IT of 5 A with an angle of -37°. We can consider that ZT has the phase of the voltage source with respect to IT. More Parallel Branches Figure 11 illustrates how any number of parallel resistances and reactances can be combined. The total resistive branch current IR of 4 A is the sum of 2 A each for the R1 branch and the R2 branch. Note that the order of connection does not matter, since the parallel branch currents add in the main line. Effectively, two 50resistances in parallel are equivalent to one 25- resistance.

Figure 11 Parallel AC Circuit With More Components than Figure 10, But The Same Values of Z, I, and Similarly, the total inductive branch current IL is 4 A, equal to 3 A for I L and 1 A for I L . Also, the total capacitive branch current IC is 1 A, equal to 1/2 A each for I C and I C . 1

The net reactive branch current IX is 3 A, then, equal to a 4-A IL minus a 1-A IC. Since IL is larger, the net current is inductive.

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The circuit in Figure 11 is equivalent to the circuit in Figure 10, therefore. Both have a 4-A resistive current IR and a 3-A net inductive current IL. These values added by phasors make a total of 5 A for IT in the main line. Practice Problems — Section 6 a. In Figure 10, what is the net reactive branch current? b. In Figure 11, what is the net reactive branch current.

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Series-Parallel Reactance and Resistance Figure 12 shows how a series-parallel circuit can be reduced to a series circuit with just one reactance and one resistance. The method is straightforward as long as resistance and reactance are not combined in one parallel bank or series string.

Figure 12 Reducing a Series-Parallel Circuit with R, XL, and XC to a Series Circuit With one R and One X. (a) Actual Circuit (b) Simplified Arrangement (c) Series Equivalent Circuit (d) Phasor Diagram Working backward toward the generator from the outside branch in Figure 12a, we have an X L and an X L of 100 each in series, which total 200 . This string in Figure 12a is equivalent to X L in Figure 12b. 1

In the other branch, the net reactance of X L and XC is equal to 600 minus 400 . This is equivalent to the 200 of X L in Figure 12b. The X L and X L of 200 each in parallel are combined for an XL of 100 . 3

In Figure 12c, the 100- XL is in series with the 100value is for R1 and R2 in parallel. Power Production Training

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The phasor diagram for the equivalent circuit in Figure 12d shows the total impedance Z of 141 for a 100- R in series with a 100X L. With a 141- impedance across the applied VT of 100 V, the current in the generator is 0.7 A. The phase angle 0 is 45° for this circuit. Practice Problems — Section 7 Refer to Figure 12. a. How much is

b. How much is

- XC?

c. How much is

in parallel with

Real Power In an ac circuit with reactance, the current I supplied by the generator either leads or lags the generator voltage V. Then the product VI is not the real power produced by the generator, since the voltage may have a high value while the current is near zero, or vice versa. The real power, however, can always be calculated as I2R, where R is the total resistive component of the circuit, because current and voltage have the same phase in a resistance. To find the corresponding value of power as VI, this product must be multiplied by the cosine of the phase angle . Then Real power =I2R

(24-3)

or Real power - VI cos

(24-4)

where V and I are in rms values, to calculate the real power, in watts. Multiplying VI by the cosine of the phase angle provides the resistive component for real power equal to I2R.

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= 60°

Figure 13 Real Power In Series Circuit. (a) Schematic Diagram (b) Phasor Diagram For example, the ac circuit in Figure 13 has 2 A through a 100in series with the XL of 173 . Therefore

Real power = I2R = 4 x 100 Real power = 400 W Furthermore, in this circuit the phase angle is 60° with a cosine of 0.5. The applied voltage is 400 V. Therefore Real power = VI cos

= 400 x 2 x 0.5

Real power = 400 W In both examples, the real power is the same 400 W, because this is the amount of power supplied by the generator and dissipated in the resistance. Either formula can be used for calculating the real power, depending on which is more convenient. Real power can be considered as resistive power, which is dissipated as heat. A reactance does not dissipate power but stores energy in the electric or magnetic field. Power Factor Because it indicates the resistive component, cos is the power factor of the circuit, converting the VI product to real power. For series circuits, use the formula Power factor = cos

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or for parallel circuits Power factor = cos

(24-6)

In Figure 13, as an example of a series circuit, we use R and Z for the calculations: Power factor = cos

100

200

0 .5

For the parallel circuit in Figure 10, we use the resistive current IR and the IT: Power factor = cos

4 A

5 A

0 .8

The power factor is not an angular measure but a numerical ratio, with a value between 0 and 1, equal to the cosine of the phase angle. With all resistance and zero reactance, R and Z are the same for a series circuit, or IR and IT are the same for a parallel circuit, and the ratio is 1. Therefore, unity power factor means a resistive circuit. At the opposite extreme, all reactance with zero resistance makes the power factor zero, meaning that the circuit is all reactive. Apparent Power When V and I are out of phase because of reactance, the power of V x I is called apparent power. The unit is voltamperes (VA) instead of watts, since the watt is reserved for real power. For the example in Figure 13, with 400 V and the 2-A I, 60° out of phase, the apparent power is VI, or 400 x 2 = 800 VA. Note that apparent power is the VI product alone, without considering the power factor cos . The power factor can be calculated as the ratio of real power to apparent power, as this ratio equals cos . As an example, in Figure 13, the real power is 400 W, and the apparent power is 800 VA. The ratio of 400/800 then is 0.5 for the power factor, the same as cos 60°.

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The VAR This is an abbreviation for voltampere reactive. Specifically, VARs are voltamperes at the angle of 90°. In general, for any phase angle between V and I, multiplying VI by sin gives the vertical component at 90° for the value of the VARs. In Figure 13, the value of VI sin 60° is 800 x 0.866 = 692.8 VAR. Note that the factor sin for the VARs gives the vertical or reactive component of the apparent power VI. However, multiplying VI by cos as the power factor gives the horizontal or resistive component for the real power. Correcting the Power Factor In commercial use, the power factor should be close to unity for efficient distribution. However, the inductive load of motors may result in a power factor of 0.7, as an example, for the phase angle of 45°. To correct for this lagging inductive component of the current in the main line, a capacitor can be connected across the line to draw leading current from the source. To bring the power factor up to 1.0, that is, unity PF, the value of capacitance is calculated to take the same amount of voltamperes as the VARs of the load. Practice Problems — Section 8 a. What is the unit for real power? b. What is the unit for apparent power?

AC Meters The D’Arsonval moving-coil type of meter movement will not read if it is used in an ac circuit because the average value of an alternating current is zero. Since the two opposite polarities cancel, an alternating current cannot deflect the meter movement either up-scale or down-scale. An ac meter must produce deflection of the meter pointing up-scale regardless of polarity. This deflection is accomplished by one of the following three methods for ac meters.

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1. Thermal type. In this method, the heating effect of the current, which is independent of polarity, is used to provide meter deflection. Two examples are the thermocouple type and hotwire meter. 2. Electromagnetic type. In this method, the relative magnetic polarity is maintained constant although the current reverses. Examples are the iron-vane meter, dynamometer, and wattmeter. 3. Rectifier type. The rectifier changes the ac input to dc output for the meter, which is usually a D’Arsonval movement. This type is the most common for ac voltmeters generally used for the audio and radio frequencies. All ac meters have scales calibrated in rms values, unless noted otherwise on the meter. A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals joined together at one end but open at the opposite side. Heat at the short-circuited junction produces a small dc voltage across the open ends, which are connected to a dc meter movement. In the hot-wire meter, current heats a wire to make it expand, and this motion is converted into meter deflection. Both types are used as ac meters for radio frequencies. The iron-vane meter and dynamometer have very low sensitivity, compared with a D’Arsonval movement. They are used in power circuits, for either direct current or 60-Hz alternating current. Practice Problems — Section 9 Answer True or False. a. The iron-vane meter can read alternating current. b. The D’Arsonval meter movement is for direct current only.

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Wattmeters The wattmeter uses fixed coils to indicate current in the circuit, while the movable coil indicates voltage (Figure 14). The deflection then is proportional to power. Either dc power or real ac power can be read directly by the wattmeter.

Figure 14 Wattmeter (a) Schematic of Voltage and Current Coils (b) Meter For Range of 0 to 200 W. (W. M. Welch Mfg. Co.) In Figure 14a, the coils L I and L I in series are the stationary coils serving as an ammeter to measure current. The two I terminals are connected in one side of the line in series with the load. The movable coil LV and its multiplier resistance RM are used as a voltmeter, with the V terminals connected across the line in parallel with the load. Then the current in the fixed coils is proportional to I, while the current in the movable coil is proportional to V. As a result, the deflection is proportional to the VI product, which is power. 1

Furthermore, it is the VI product for each instant of time that produces deflection. For instance, if the V value is high when the I value is low, for a phase angle close to 90°, there will be little deflection. The meter deflection is proportional to the watts of real power, therefore, regardless of the power factor in ac circuits. The wattmeter is commonly used to measure power from the 60-Hz power line. For radio frequencies, however, power is generally measured in terms of heat transfer.

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Practice Problems — Section 10 a. Does a wattmeter measure real or apparent power? b. In Figure 14, does the movable coil of the wattmeter measure V or I?

Summary The differences in R, XL, XC, and Z are listed in the Table 1, but the following general features should also be noted. Ohms of opposition limit the amount of current in dc circuits or ac circuits. Resistance R is the same for either case. However, ac circuits can have ohms of reactance because of the variations in alternative current or voltage. Reactance XL is the reactance of an inductance with sine-wave changes in current. Reactance XC is the reactance of a capacitor with sine-wave changes in voltage.

Table 1 Types of Ohms in AC Circuits Both XL and XC are measured in ohms, like R, but reactance has a 90° phase angle, while the phase angle for resistance is 0°. A circuit with steady direct current cannot have any reactance. Ohms of XL or XC are opposite, as XL has a phase angle of +90°, while XC has the angle of -90°. Any individual XL or XC always has a phase angle that is exactly 90°. Ohms of impedance Z result from the phasor combination of resistance and reactance. In fact, Z can be considered the general form of any ohms of opposition in ac circuits.

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Z can have any phase angle, depending on the relative amounts of R and X. When Z consists mostly of R with little reactance, the phase angle of Z is close to 0°. With R and X equal, the phase angle of Z is 45°. Whether the angle is positive or negative depends on whether the net reactance is inductive or capacitive. When Z consists mainly of X with little R, the phase angle of Z is close to 90°. The phase angle is Z for Z or VT with respect to the common I in a series circuit. With parallel branch currents, I is for IT in the main line with respect to the common voltage. Practice Problems Section 11 a. Which of the following does not change with frequency: Z, XL, XC, or R? b. Which has lagging current: R, XL, or XV? c. Which has leading current: R, XL, or XV?

Summary of Types of Phasors in AC Circuits The phasors for ohms, volts, and amperes are shown in Figure 15. Note the similarities and differences:

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Figure 15 Summary of Phasor Relations in AC Circuits (a) Reactance XL and R in Series (b) Reactance XC and R in Series (c) Parallel Branches with IC and IR (d) Parallel Branches With IL and IR Series Components In series circuits, ohms and voltage drops have similar phasors. The reason is the common I for all the series components. Therefore: VR or IR has the same phase as R. VL or IXL has the same phase as XL. VC or IXC has the same phase as XC. Resistance The R, VL, and IR always have the same angle because there is no phase shift in a resistance. This applies to R in either a series or a parallel circuit. Reactance Reactances XL and XC are 90° phasors in opposite directions. The XL or VL has the angle of +90° with an upward phasor, while the XC or VC has the angle of -90° with a downward phasor.

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Reactive Branch Currents The phasor of a parallel branch current is opposite from its reactance. Therefore, IC is upward at +90°, opposite from XC downward at -90°. Also, IL is downward at -90°. opposite from XL upward at +90°. In short, IC and IL are opposite from each other, and both are opposite from their corresponding reactances. Phase Angel

The phasor resultant for ohms of reactance and resistance is the impedance Z. The phase angle for Z can be any angle between 0 and 90°. In a series circuit Z for Z is the same as for VT with respect to the common current I. Phase Angle

The phasor resultant of branch currents is the total line current IT. The phase angle of IT can be any angle between 0 and 90°. In a parallel circuit, I is the angle of IT with respect to the applied voltage VA. The I is the same value but of opposite sign from the impedance of the combined parallel branches.

for Z, which is

The reason for the change of sign is that I is for IT with respect to the common V, but Z is for VT with respect to the common current I. Such phasor combinations are necessary in sine-wave ac circuits in order to take into account the effect of reactance. The phasors can be analyzed either graphically, as in Figure 15, or by the shorter technique of complex numbers, with a j operator that corresponds to a 90° phasor. Practice Problems — Section 12 a. Of the following three phasors, which two are 180° opposite: VL, VC, or VR? b. Of the following three phasors, which two are out of phase by 90°: IR, IT, or IL?

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Summary 1. In ac circuits with resistance alone, the circuit is analyzed the same way as for dc circuits, generally with rms ac values. Without any reactance, the phase angle is zero. 2. When capacitive reactances alone are combined, the XC values are added in series and combined by the reciprocal formula in parallel, just like ohms of resistance. Similarly, ohms of XL alone can be added in series or combined by the reciprocal formula in parallel, just like ohms of resistance. 3. Since XC and XL are opposite reactances, they cancel each other. In series, the ohms of XC and XL cancel. In parallel, the capacitive and inductive branch currents IC and IL cancel. 4. In ac circuits with R, XL, and XC, they can be reduced to one equivalent resistance and one net reactance. 5. In series, the total R and net X at 90° are combined as 2 2 Z R X . The phase angle of the series R and X is the angle with tangent ±X/R. First we calculate ZT and then divide into VT to find I. 6. For parallel branches, the total IR and net reactive IX at 90° are 2 2 combined as I T IR I X . The phase angle of the parallel R and X is the angle with tangent ±IX/IR. First we calculate IT and then divide into VA to find ZT. 7. The quantities R, XL, XC, and Z in ac circuits all are ohms of opposition. The differences with respect to frequency and phase angle are summarized in Table 1. 8. The phasor relations for resistance and reactance are summarized in Figure 15. 9. In ac circuits with reactance, the real power in watts equals I2R, or VI cos , where is the phase angle. The real power is the power dissipated as heat in resistance. Cos is the power factor of the circuit. 10. The wattmeter measures real ac power or dc power.

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Self-Examination Choose (a), (b), (c), or (d). 1. In an ac circuit with resistance but no reactance, (a) two 1000resistances in series total 1414 ; (b) two 1000- resistances in series total 2000 ; (c) two 1000- resistances in parallel total 707 ; (d) a 1000- R in series with a 400- R totals 600 . 2. An ac circuit has an 100- X C , a 50- X C , a 40- X L , and a 30- X L , all in series. The net reactance is equal to (a) an 80XL; (b) a 200- XL; (c) an 80- XC; (d) a 200- XC. 1

3. An ac circuit has a 40- R, a 90- XL, and a 60- XC, all in series. The impedance Z equals (a) 50 ; (b) 70.7 ; (c) 110 ; (d) 190 . 4. An ac circuit has a 100- R, a 100- XL, and a 100- XC, all in series. The impedance Z of the series combination is equal to (a) 33-1/3 ; (b) 70.7 ; (c) 100 ; (d) 300 . 5. An ac circuit has a 100- R, a 300- XL, and a 200- XC, all in series. The phase angle of the circuit equals (a) 0°; (b) 37°; (c) 45°; (d) 90°. 6. The power factor of an ac circuit equals (a) the cosine of the phase angle: (b) the tangent of the phase angle; (c) zero for a resistive circuit; (d) unity for a reactive circuit. 7. Which phasors in the following combinations are not in opposite directions? (a) XL and XC; (b) XL and IC; (c) IL and IC; (d) XC and IC. 8. In Figure 8a, the voltage drop across XL equals (a) 60 V; (b) 662/3 V; (c) 120 V; (d) 200 V. 9. In Figure 10a, the combined impedance of the parallel circuit equals (a) 5 ; (b) 12.5 ; (c) 20 ; (d) 100 . 10. The wattmeter (a) has voltage and current coils to measure real power; (b) has three connections, two of which are used at a time; (c) measures apparent power because the current is the same in the voltage and current coils; (d) can measure dc power but not 60-Hz ac power.

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Essay Questions

1. Why can series or parallel resistances be combined in ac circuits the same way as in dc circuits? 2. (a) Why do XL and XC reactances in series cancel each other? (b) With XL and XC reactances in parallel, why do their branch currents cancel? 3. Give one difference in electrical characteristics comparing R and XC, R and Z, XC and C, XL and L. 4. Name three types of ac meters. 5. Make a diagram showing a resistance R1 in series with the load resistance RL, with a wattmeter connected to measure the power in RL. 6. Make a phasor diagram for the circuit in Figure 8a showing the phase of the voltage drops IR, IXC, and IXL with respect to the reference phase of the common current I. 7. Explain briefly why the two opposite phasors at +90° for XL and -90° for IL both follow the principle that any self-induced voltage leads the current through the coil by 90°. 8. Why is it that a reactance phasor is always at exactly 90° but an impedance phasor can be less than 90°? 9. Why must the impedance of a series circuit be more than either its X or R? 10. Why must IT in a parallel circuit be more than either IR or IX?

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Problems 1. Refer to Figure 1a. (a) Calculate the total real power supplied by the source. (b) Why is the phase angle zero? (c) What is the power factor of the circuit? 2. In a series ac circuit, 2 A flows through a 20- R, a 40- XL, and a 60- XC. (a) Make a schematic diagram of the series circuit. (b) Calculate the voltage drop across each series component. (c) How much is the applied voltage? (d) Calculate the power factor of the circuit. (e) What is the phase angle ? 3. A parallel circuit has the following five branches: three resistances of 30 each; an XL of 600 ; and XC of 400 . (a) Make a schematic diagram of the circuit. (b) If 100 V is applied, how much is the total line current? (c) What is the total impedance of the circuit? (d) What is the phase angle ? 4. Referring to Figure 8, assume that the frequency is doubled from 500 to 1000 Hz. Find XL, XC, Z, I, and for this higher frequency. Calculate L and C. 5. A series circuit has a 300- R, a 500- X C , a 300- X C , an 800X L , and 400- X L , all in series with an applied voltage V of 400 V. (a) Draw the schematic diagram with all components. (b) Draw the equivalent circuit reduced to one resistance and one reactance. (c) Calculate ZT, I, and . 1

6. Repeat Prob. 5 for a circuit with the same components in parallel across the voltage source. 7. A series circuit has a 600- R, a 10- H inductance L, and a 4- F capacitance C, all in series with the 60-Hz 120-V power line as applied voltage. (a) Find the reactance of L and of C. (b) Calculate ZT, I, and Z. 8. Repeat Prob. 7 for the same circuit, but the 120-V source has f = 10 Mhz.

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9. (a) Referring to the series circuit Figure 6, what is the phase angle between the IXL voltage of 360 V and the IXC voltage of 240 V? (b) Draw the two sine waves for these voltages, showing their relative amplitudes and phase corresponding to the phasor diagram in Figure 6b. Also show the resultant sine wave of voltage across the net XL. 10. How much resistance dissipates 600 W of ac power, with 4.3-A rms current? 11. How much resistance must be inserted in series with a 0.95-H inductance to limit the current to 0.25 A from the 120-V 60-Hz power line? 12. How much resistance must be inserted in series with a 10- F capacitance to provide a phase angle of -45°? The source is the 120-V 60-Hz power line. 13. With the same R as in Prob. 12, what value of C is necessary for the angle of -45° at the frequency of 2 Mhz? 14. A parallel ac circuit has the following branch currents: I R = 4.2 mA; I R = 2.4 mA; I L = 7 mA; I L = 1 mA; IC = 6 mA. Calculate IT. 1

15. With 420 mV applied, an ac circuit has the following parallel branches: R1 = 100 ; R2 = 175 ; X L = 60 ; X L = 420 ; XC = 70 . Calculate IT, I, and ZT. 1

16. The same components as in Prob. 15 are in series. Calculate ZT, I, and Z. 17. What R is needed in series with a 0.01- F capacitor for a phase angle of -64°, with f of 800 Hz?

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Answers to Practice Problems Section 1

a. 0° b. 0°

Section 2.

a. 90° b. -90°

Section 3

a. -90° b. 90°

Section 4

a. 20 b. 1 A

Section 5

a. XC = 30 b. XC = 30

Section 6

a. IL = 3 A b. IL = 3 A

Section 7

a. 200 b. 200 c. 100

Section 8

a. Watt b. Voltampere

Section 9

a. T b. T

Section 10

a. Real power b. V

Section 11

a. R b. XL c. XC

Section 12

a. VL and VC b. IR and IL

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Answers to Special Problems 1. (a) 100 W (b) No reactance (c) 1 2. 3. (b) I = 10 A, approx. (c) Z = 10 (d) = 0° 4. 5. (c) ZT = 500 I = 0.8 A Z = 53° 6. 7. (a) XL = 0, approx. XC = 665 (b) ZT = 890 I = 135 mA Z = -47.9° 8. 9. (a) 180° 10. 11. R = 102 12. 13. C = 300 pF 14. 15. IT = 6.9 mA, I = -16.9° ZT = 60.9 , Z = 16.9° 16. 17. R = 9704

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Complex Numbers for AC Circuits

Complex numbers form a numerical system that includes the phase angle of a quantity, with its magnitude. Therefore, complex numbers are useful in ac circuits when the reactance of XL or XC makes it necessary to consider the phase angle. Any type of ac circuit can be analyzed with complex numbers, but they are especially convenient for solving series-parallel circuits that have both resistance and reactance in one or more branches. Actually, the use of complex numbers is probably the best way to analyze ac circuits with series-parallel impedances. Important terms in this chapter are: admittance

real numbers

imaginary numbers

rectangular form

j operator

susceptance

polar form More details are explained in the following sections: 1. Positive and Negative Numbers 2. The j Operator 3. Definition of a Complex Number 4. How Complex Numbers are Applied to AC Circuits 5. Impedance in Complex form 6. Operations with Complex Numbers 7. Magnitude and Angle of a Complex Number 8. Polar Form of Complex Numbers 9. Converting Polar to Rectangular Form 10. Complex Numbers in Series AC Circuits 11. Complex Numbers in Parallel AC Circuits 12. Combining Two Complex Branch Impedances 13. Combining Complex Branch Currents 14. Parallel Circuit with Three Complex Branches

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Positive and Negative Numbers

Figure 1 Positive and Negative Numbers Our common use of numbers as either positive or negative represents only two special cases. In their more general form, numbers have both quantity and phase angle. In Figure 1, positive and negative numbers are shown as corresponding to the phase angles of 0 and 180°, respectively. For example, the numbers 2, 4, and 6 represent units along the horizontal or x axis, extending toward the right along the line of zero phase angle. Therefore, positive numbers really represent units having the phase angle of 0°. Or this phase angle corresponds to the factor of +1. To indicate 6 units with zero phase angle, then, 6 is multiplied by +1 as a factor for the positive number 6. The + sign is often omitted, as it is assumed unless indicated otherwise. In the opposite direction, negative numbers correspond to 180°. Or, this phase angle corresponds to the factor of -1. Actually, -6 represents the same quantity as 6 but rotated through the phase angle of 180°. The angle of rotation is the operator for the number. The operator for -1 is 180°; the operator for +1 is 0°. Practice Problems — Section 1 a. What is the angle for the number +5? a. What is the angle for the number -5?

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The j Operator

Figure 2 The j Axis at 90° From Real Axis The operator for a number can be any angle between 0 and 360°. Since the angle of 90° is important in ac circuits, the factor j is used to indicate 90°. See Figure 2. Here, the number 5 means 5 units at 0°, the number -5 is at 180°, while j5 indicates the 90° angle. The j is usually written before the number. The reason is that the j sign is a 90° operator, just as the + sign is a 0° operator and the sign is a 180° operator. Any quantity at right angles to the zero axis, therefore, 90° counterclockwise, is on the +j axis. In mathematics, numbers on the horizontal axis are real numbers, including positive and negative values. Numbers on the j axis are called imaginary numbers, only because they are not on the real axis. Also, in mathematics the abbreviation I is used in place of j. In electricity, however, j is used to avoid confusion with I as the symbol for current. Furthermore, there is nothing imaginary about electrical quantities on the j axis. An electric shock from j500 V is just as dangerous as 500 V positive or negative. More featured of the j operator are shown in Figure 3. The angle of 180° corresponds to the j operation of 90° repeated twice. This angular rotation is indicated by the factor j2. Note that the j operation multiplies itself, instead of adding. Since j2 means 180°, which corresponds to the factor of -1, we can say that j2 is the same as -1. In short, the operator j2 for a number means multiply by -1. For instance, j28 is -8.

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Figure 3 Furthermore, the angle of 270° is the same as -90°, which corresponds to the operator -j. These characteristics of the j operator are summarized as follows: 0° = 1 90° = j 180° = j2 = -1 270° = j3 = j2 x j = -1 x j = -j 360° = same as 0° As examples, the number 4 or -4 represents 4 units on the real horizontal axis; j4 means 4 units with a leading phase angle of 90°; j4 means 4 units with a lagging phase angle of -90°. Practice Problems — Section 2 a. What is the angle for the operator j? b. What is the angle for the operator -j?

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Definition of a Complex Number The combination of a real and imaginary term is a complex number. Usually, the real number is written first. As an example, 3 + j4 is a complex number including 3 units on the real axis added to 4 units 90° out of phase on the j axis. The name complex number just means that its terms must be added as phasors. Phasors for complex numbers are shown in Figure 4. The +j phasor is up for 90°; the -j phasor is down for -90°. The phasors are shown with the end of one joined to the start of the next, to be ready for addition. Graphically, the sum is the hypotenuse of the right triangle formed by the two phasors. Since a number like 3 + j4 specifies the phasors in rectangular coordinates, this system is the rectangular form of complex numbers.

Figure 4 Phasors Corresponding to Real Terms and j Terms, In Rectangular Coordinates Be careful to distinguish a number like j2, where 2 is a coefficient, from j2, where 2 is the exponent. The number j2 means 2 units up on the j axis of 90°. However, j2 is the operator of -1, which is on the real axis in the negative direction. Another comparison to note is between j3 and j3. The number j3 is 3 units up on the j axis, while j3 is the same as the -j operator, which is down on the -90° axis. Also note that either the real term or j term can be the larger of the two. When the j term is larger, the angle is more than 45°; when the

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j term is smaller, the angle is less than 45°. If the j term and the real term are equal, the angle is 45°.

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Practice Problems — Section 3 Answer True or False. a. For 7 + j6, the 6 is at 90° leading the 7. b. For 7 - j6, the 6 is at 90° lagging the 7.

How Complex Numbers Are Applied to AC Circuits The applications are just a question of using a real term for 0°, +j for 90°, and -j for -90°, to denote the phase angles. Specifically, Figure 5 below illustrates the following rules: An angle of 0° or a real number without any j operator is used for resistance R. For instance, 3 of R is stated just as 3 . An angle of 90° or +j is used for inductive reactance XL. For instance, a 4- XL is j4 . This rule always applies to XL, whether it is in series or parallel with R. The reason is the fact that XL represents voltage across an inductance, which always leads the current through the inductance by 90°. The +j is also used for VL. An angle of -90° or -j is used for capacitive reactance XC. For instance, a 4- XC is -j4 W. This rule always applies to XC, whether it is in series or parallel with R. The reason is the fact that XC represents voltage across a capacitor, which always lags the charge and discharge current of the capacitor by -90°. The -j is also used for VC.

Figure 5 Rectangular Form of Complex Numbers For Impedances (a) Reactance XL is +J (b) Reactance XC is -j Power Production Training

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With reactive branch currents, the sign for j is reversed, compared with reactive ohms, because of the opposite phase angle. As shown in Figure 6a and b, -j is used for inductive branch current IL and +j for capacitive branch current IC.

Figure 6 Rectangular Form of Complex Numbers For Branch Currents (a) Current IL is -j (b) Current LC is + j Practice Problems — Section 4 a. Write 3 k

of KL with the j operator.

b. Write 5 mA of IL with the j operator.

Impedance in Complex Form The rectangular form of complex numbers is a convenient way to state the impedance of series resistance and reactance. In Figure 5a, the impedance is 3 + j4, as Za is the phasor sum of a 3- R in series with j4 for XL. Similarly, Zb is 3 - j4 for a 3- R in series with -j4 for XC. The minus sign results from adding the negative term for -j. More examples are: For a 4-k

R and a 2-k

XL in series, ZT = 4000 + j2000

For a 3-k

R and a 9-k

XC in series, ZT = 3000 - j9000

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For a zero R and a 7-

XL in series, ZT = 0 + j7

For a 12-

R and a zero reactance in series, ZT = 12 + j0

Note the general form of stating Z = R ± jX. If one term is zero, substitute 0 for this term, in order to keep Z in its general form. This procedure is not required, but there is usually less confusion when the same form is used for all types of Z. The advantage of this method is that multiple impedances written as complex numbers can then be calculated as follows: ZT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + … + etc. for series impedances 1 Z

1 Z

1 1

1 Z

etc. 3

for parallel impedances or Z

Z1 x Z2 T

for two parallel impedances

Examples are shown in Figure 7. The circuit in Figure 7a is just a series combination of resistances and reactances. Combining the real terms and j terms separately, ZT = 12 + j4. The calculations are 3 + 9 = 12 for R and j6 added to -j2 equals j4 for the next XL. The parallel circuit in Figure 7b shows that XL is +j and XC is -j even though they are in parallel branches, as they are reactances, not currents. So far, these types of circuits can be analyzed with or without complex numbers. For the series-parallel circuit in Figure 7c, however, the notation of complex numbers is necessary to state the complex impedance ZT, consisting of branches with reactance and resistance in one or more of the branches. Impedance ZT is just stated here in its form as a complex impedance. In order to

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calculate ZT, some of the rules described in the next section must be used for combining complex numbers.

Figure 7 Reactance XL is a +j Term and XC is a -j Term, Whether in Series or in Parallel (a) Series Circuit (b) Parallel Branches (c) Complex Branch Impedances Z1 and Z2 in Parallel Practice Problems — Section 5 Write the following impedances in complex form. a. XL of 7

in series with R of 4

b. XC of 7

in series with zero R.

Operations with Complex Numbers Real numbers and j terms cannot be combined directly because they are 90° out of phase. The following rules apply: For Addition or Subtraction Add or subtract the real and j terms separately: (9 + j5) + (3 + j2) = 9 + 3 + j5 + j2 = 12 + j7 (9 + j5) + (3 - j2) = 9 + 3 + j5 - j2 = 12 + j3 (9 + j5) + (3 - j8) = 9 + 3 + j5 - 8 = 12 - j3

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The answers should be in the form of R ± jX, where R is the algebraic sum of all the real or resistive terms and X is the algebraic sum of all the imaginary or reactive terms. To Multiply or Divide a j Term by a Real Number Just multiply or divide the numbers. The answer is still a j term. Note the algebraic signs in the following examples. If both factors have the same sign, either + or -, the answer is +; if one factor is negative, the answer is negative. 4 x j3 = j12

j12 ÷ 4 = j3

j5 x 6 = j30

j30 ÷ 6 = j5

j5 x (-6) = -j30

-j30 ÷ (-6) = j5

-j5 x 6 = -j30

-j30 ÷ 6 = -j5

-j5 x (-6) = j30

j30 ÷ (-6) = -j5

To Multiply or Divide a Real Number by a Real Number Just multiply or divide the real numbers, as in arithmetic. There is no j operation. The answer is still a real number. To Multiply a j Term by a j Term Multiply the numbers and the j coefficients to produce a j2 term. The answer is a real term because j2 is -1, which is on the real axis. Multiplying two j terms shifts the number 90° from the j axis to the real axis of 180°. As examples: j4 x j3 = j212 = (-1)(12) = -12 j4 x (-j3) = -j212 = -(-1)(12) = 12 To Divide a j Term by a j Term Divide the j coefficients to produce a real number: the j factors cancel. For instance: j12 ÷ j4 = 3

-j12 ÷ j4 = -3

j30 ÷ j5 = 6

j30 ÷ (-j6) = -5

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j15 ÷ j3 = 5

April, 2003 Page 256

-j15 ÷ (-j3) = 5

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To Multiply Complex Numbers Follow the rules of algebra for multiplying two factors, each having two terms: (9 + j5) x (3 - j2) = 27 + j15 - j18 - j210 = 27 - j3 - (-1)10 = 27 - j3 + 10 = 37 - j3 Note that -j210 equals +10 because the operator j2 is -1 and -(-1)10 becomes +10. To Divide Complex Numbers This process becomes more involved because division of a real number by an imaginary number is not possible. Therefore, the denominator must first be converted to a real number without any j term. Converting the denominator to a real number without any j term is called rationalization of the fraction. To do this, multiply both numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator. Conjugate complex numbers have equal terms but opposite signs for the j term. For instance, (1 + j2) has the conjugate (1 - j2). Rationalization is permissible because the value of fraction is not changed when both numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same factor. This procedure is the same as multiplying by 1. In the following example of division with rationalization the denominator (1 + j2) has the conjugate (1 - j2): 4

j2)

j 2

j 4

j9 1

2 4

j9 5

0.4

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j1 . 8

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As a result of the rationalization, 4 - j1 has been divided by 1 + j2 to find the quotient that is equal to 0.4 - j1.8. Note that the product of a complex number and its conjugate always equals the sum of the squares of the numbers in each term. As another example, the product of (2 + j3) and its conjugate (2 - j3) must be 4 + 9, which equals 13. Simple numerical examples of division and multiplication are given here because when the required calculations become too long, it is easier to divide and multiply complex numbers in polar form, as explained in Section 8. Practice Problems — Section 6 a. (2 + j3) + (3 + j4) = ? b. (2 + j3) x 2 = ?

Magnitude and Angle of a Complex Number In electrical terms a complex impedance (4 + j3) means 4 of resistance and 3 of inductive reactance with a leading phase angle of 90°. See Figure 8a. The magnitude of Z is the resultant, equal to 16 9 . Finding the square root of the sum of 25 5 the squares is vector or phasor addition of two terms in quadrature, 90° out of phase. The phase angle of the resultant is the angle whose tangent is 3/4 or 0.75. The angle equals 37°. Therefore, 4 + j3 = 5 37 . When calculating the tangent ratio, note that the j term is the numerator and the real term is the denominator because the tangent of the phase angle is the ratio of the opposite side to the adjacent side. With a negative j term, the tangent is negative, which means a negative phase angle. Note the following definitions: (4 + j3) is the complex number in rectangular coordinates. The real term is 4. The imaginary term is j3. The resultant 5 is the magnitude, absolute value, or modulus of the complex number. Its phase angle or argument is 37°. The resultant value by itself can be written as |5|, with vertical lines to

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indicate it is the magnitude without the phase angle. The magnitude is the value a meter would read. For instance, with a current of 5 37 A in a circuit, an ammeter reads 5 A. As additional examples: 2 + j4 = 4 + j2 =

4 16

8 + j6 = 8 - j6 =

4 + j4 = 4 - j4 =

64 64

4 . 47

(arctan 0.5) =

4 . 47

26 . 5

(arctan 0.75) = 10

36 36

16 16

(arctan 2) =

(arctan -0.75) = 10 16

(arctan 1) =

(arctan -1) =

5 .66

37 45

Note that arctan 2, for example, means the angle with a tangent equal to 2. This can also be indicated as tan-1 2. In either case, the angle is specified as having 2 for its tangent, and the angle is 63.4°. Practice Problems — Section 7 For the complex impedance 10 + j10

a. Calculate the magnitude. b. Calculate the phase angle.

Polar Form of Complex Numbers Calculating the magnitude and phase angle of a complex number is actually converting to an angular form in polar coordinates. As shown in Figure 8, the rectangular form 4 + j3 is equal to 5 37 in polar form. In polar coordinates, the distance out from the center is the magnitude of the vector Z. Its phase angle is counterclockwise from the 0° axis.

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Figure 8 Magnitude and Angle of a Complex Number (a) Rectangular Form (b) Polar Form To convert any complex number to polar form: 1. Find the magnitude by phasor addition of the j term and real term. 2. Find the angle whose tangent is the j term divided by the real term. As examples: 2 + j4 = 4 + j2 =

4 . 47 4 . 47

8 + j6 = 10

63 26 . 5 37

8 - j6 = 10

4 + j4 =

4 - j4 =

5 .66

These examples are the same as those given before for finding the magnitude and phase angle of a complex number.

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The magnitude in polar form must be more than either term in rectangular form, but less than the arithmetic sum of the two terms. For instance, in 8 + j6 = 10 37 the magnitude of 10 is more than 8 or 6 but less than their sum of 14. Applied to ac circuits with resistance for the real term and reactance for the j term, then, the polar form of a complex number states the resultant impedance and its phase angle. Note the following cases for an impedance where either the resistance or reactance is reduced to zero. 0 + j5 = 0 - j5 =

5 + j0 =

The polar form is much more convenient for multiplying or dividing complex numbers. The reason is that multiplication in polar form is reduced to addition of the angles, and the angles are just subtracted for division in polar form. The following rules apply. For Multiplication Multiply the magnitudes but add the angles algebraically: 24

40 x2

40 x(

30 2

20 x3

20 4

30 )

When you multiply by a real number, just multiply the magnitudes: 4x2

4x2 4x2 4x(

8 30

30 2

30 8

8 30 )

30 8

This rule follows from the fact that a real number has an angle of 0°. When you add 0° to any angle, the sum equals the same angle.

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For Division Divide the magnitudes but subtract the angles algebraically: 24

12 12

10 20

20 3

To divide by a real number, just divide the magnitudes: 12

30 6

This rule is also a special case that follows from the fact that a real number has a phase angle of 0°. When you subtract 0° from any angle, the remainder equals the same angle. For the opposite case, however, when you divide a real number by a complex number, the angle of the denominator changes its sign in the answer in the numerator. This rule still follows the procedure of subtracting angles for division, since a real number has a phase angle of 0°. As examples, 10 5

30 2

5 0

0 30

10 5

10 30

5 ( 30 )

30 0 30 2

Stated another way, we can say that the reciprocal of an angle is the same angle but with opposite sign. Note that this operation is similar to working with powers of 10. Angles and powers of 10 follow the general rules of exponents. Practice Problems — Section 8

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20 x2

30 2

? ?

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Converting Polar to Rectangular Form Complex number in polar form are convenient for multiplication and division, but they cannot be added or subtracted. The reason is that changing the angle corresponds to the operation of multiplying or dividing. When complex numbers in polar form are to be added or subtracted, therefore, they must be converted back into rectangular form.

Figure 9 Converting Polar Form of Z to Rectangular Form of R ± jX (a) Positive Angle in First Quadrant has + j Term (b) Negative Angle - in Fourth Quadrant has -j Term Consider the impedance Z in polar form. Its value is the hypotenuse of a right triangle with sides formed by the real term and j term in rectangular coordinates. See Figure 9. Therefore, the polar form can be converted to rectangular form by finding the horizontal and vertical sides of the right triangle. Specifically: Real term for R = Z cos j term for X = Z sin In Figure 9a, assume that Z in polar form is 37° is 0.6 and its cosine is 0.8.

. The sine of

To convert to rectangular form:

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R = Z cos

= 5 x 0.8 = 4

X = Z sin

= 5 x 0.6 = 3

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Therefore, 5

=4 + j3

This example is the same as the illustration in Figure 8. The + sign for the j term means it is XL, not XC. In Figure 9b, the values are the same, but the j term is negative when is negative. The negative angle has a negative j term because the opposite side is in the fourth quadrant, where the sine is negative. However, the real term is still positive because the cosine is positive. Note that R for cos is the horizontal phasor, which is an adjacent side of the angle. The X for sine is the vertical phasor, which is opposite the angle. The +X is XL; the -X is XC. You can ignore the sign of in calculating sin and cos because the values are the same up to +90° or down to -90°. These rules apply for angles in the first or fourth quadrant, from 0 to 90° or from 0 to -90°. As examples: 14.14

14.14 10 10 100

45 90 90 30

100

j10 10

100 100

j10 0

j10

86.6 30

j50

86.6 50

j10

j50

j86.6 50

j86.6

When going from one form to the other, keep in mind whether the angle is smaller or greater than 45° and if the j term is smaller or larger than the real term. For angles between 0 and 45°, the opposite side, which is the j term, must be smaller than the real term. For angles between 45 and 90°, the j term must be larger than the real term. To summarize how complex numbers are used in ac circuits in rectangular and polar form:

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1. For addition or subtraction, complex number must be in rectangular form. This procedure applies to the addition of impedances in a series circuit. If the series impedances are in rectangular form, just combine all the real terms and j terms separately. If the series impedances are in polar form, they must be converted to rectangular form to be added. 2. For multiplication and division, complex numbers are generally used in polar form because the calculations are faster. If the complex number is in rectangular form, convert to polar form. With the complex number available in both forms then you can quickly add or subtract in rectangular form and multiply or divide in polar form. Sample problems showing how to apply these methods in the analysis of ac circuits are illustrated in the following sections. Practice Problems — Section 9 Convert to rectangular form. a.

14.14

. 45

Complex Numbers in Series AC Circuits Refer to the diagram in Figure 10 on the next page. Although a circuit like this with only series resistances and reactances can be solved just by phasors, the complex numbers show more details of the phase angles. ZT in Rectangular Form The total ZT in Figure 10a is the sum of the impedances: ZT = 2 + j4 + 4 - j12 = 6 - j8 The total series impedance then is 6 - j8. Actually, this amounts to adding all the series resistances for the real term and finding the algebraic sum of all the series reactances for the j term.

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Figure 10 Complex Numbers Applied to Series AC Circuits (a) Circuit with Series Impedances (b) Current and Voltages (c) Phasor Diagram of Current and Voltages ZT in Polar Form We can convert ZT from rectangular to polar form as follows: ZT

6 36 100

j8 64

arctan

8/6

1.33

The angle of -53° for ZT means this is the phase angle of the circuit. Or the applied voltage and the current are 53° out of phase.

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Calculating I The reason for the polar form is to divide ZT into the applied voltage VT to calculate the current I. See Figure 10b. Note that the VT of 20 V is a real number without any j term. Therefore, the applied voltage is 20 0 . This angle of 0° for VT makes it the reference phase for the following calculations. We can find the current as VT

ZT 2

0 53

( 53 ) 53 A

Note that ZT has the negative angle of -53° but the sign changes to +53° for I because of the division into a quantity with the angle of 0°. In general, the reciprocal of an angle in polar form is the same angle with opposite sign. Phase Angle of the Circuit The fact that I has the angle of +53° means it leads VT. The positive angle for I shows the series circuit is capacitive, with leading current. This angle is more than 45° because the net reactance is more than the total resistance, resulting in a tangent function greater than 1. Finding Each IR Drop To calculate the voltage drops around the circuit, each resistance or reactance can be multiplied by I: V R1

53 x2

0 90

53 x4

53 x12

V R2

53 x4

4 8 90

53 V 143 24

V 37 V

53 V

Phase of Each Voltage The phasors for these voltages are in Figure 10c. They show the phase angles using the applied voltage VT as the zero reference phase.

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The angle of 53° for VR1 and VR2 shows that the voltage across a resistance has the same phase as I. These voltages lead VT by 53° because of the leading current. For VC, its angle of -37° means it lags the generator voltage VT by this much. However, this voltage across XC still lags the current by 90°, which is the difference between 53° and -37°. The angle of 143° for VL in the second quadrant is still 90° leading the current at 53°, as 143° - 53° = 90°. With respect to the generator voltage VT, though, the phase angle of VL is 143°. VT Equals the Phasor Sum of the Series Voltage Drops If we want to add the voltage drops around the circuit to see if they equal the applied voltage, each V must be converted to rectangular form. Then these values can be added. In rectangular form then the individual voltages are VR

Total

2 .408

143

6 .392

- 37

j 4 .816 V

19 .176

j3 .196 V

j14 .448 V

4 .816 =

20.008

j6 .392 V - j0.044

or converting to polar form, VT

0 V

approximately

Note that for 8 143 in the second quadrant, the cosine is negative for a negative real term but the sine is positive for a positive j term. Practice Problems — Section 10 Refer to Figure 10. a. What is the phase of I to VT? b. What is the phase of VL to VT? c. What is the phase of VL to VR?

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Complex Numbers in Parallel AC Circuits

Figure 11 Complex Numbers Used for Parallel AC Circuit to Convert a Parallel Bank to an Equivalent Series Impedance A useful application here is converting a parallel circuit to an equivalent series circuit. See Figure 11, with a 10- XL in parallel with a 10- R. In complex notation, R is 10 + j0 while XL is 0 + j10. Their combined parallel impedance ZT equals the product over the sum. For Figure 11a, then: Z

(10

j0)x(0

(10

j0)

j10) (0

j10)

10xj10 10 Z

j10 j100

j10

Converting to polar form for division, Z

j100 T

j10

100 14.14

90 45

7.07

Converting to ZT of 7.07 45 into rectangular form to see its resistive and reactive components, Real term = 7.07 cos 45° = 7.07 x 0.707 = 5 j term = 7.07 sin 45°

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= 7.07 x 0.707 = 5 Therefore, ZT ZT

in polar form

7 .07

in rectangular form

The rectangular form of ZT means that 5- R in series with 5- XL is the equivalent of 10- R in parallel with 10- XL, as shown in Figure 11b. Admittance Y and Susceptance B In parallel circuits, it is usually easier to add branch currents than to combine reciprocal impedances. For this reason, branch conductance G is often used instead of branch resistance, where G = 1/R. Similarly, reciprocal terms can be defined for complex impedances. The two main types are admittance Y, which is the reciprocal of impedance, and susceptance B, which is the reciprocal of reactance. These reciprocals can be summarized as follows: Conductance

1 R

Susceptance

Admittance

X 1 Z

With R, X, and Z in units of ohms, the reciprocals G, B and Y are in siemens (S) units. The phase angle for B or Y is the same as current. Therefore, the sign is opposite from the angle of X or Z because of the reciprocal relation. An inductive branch has suceptance -jB, while a capacitive branch has susceptance +jB, with the same angle as branch current. With parallel branches of conductance and susceptance the total admittance YT = G ± jB. For the two branches in Figure 11a, as an example, G is 1/10 or 0.1 and B is also 0.1. In rectangular form. YT

0.1

j0.1 S

In polar form,

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0.14

This value for YT is the same as IT with 1 V applied across ZT of 7 . 07 45 . As another example, suppose that a parallel circuit has 4 for R in one branch and -j4 for XC in the other branch. In rectangular form, then, YT is 0.25 + j0.25 S. Also, the polar form is YT 0.35 45 S . Practice Problems — Section 11 a. A Z of 3 + j4 is in parallel with an R of 2 rectangular form.

. State ZT in

b. Do the same as in Prob. a for XC instead of XL.

Combining Two Complex Branch Impedances A common application is a circuit with two branches Z1 and Z2, where each is a complex impedance with both reactance and resistance. See Figure 12. A circuit like this can be solved only graphically or by complex numbers. Actually, using complex numbers is the shortest method.

Figure 12 Finding ZT For Any Two Complex Impedances ZI and Z2 in Parallel The procedure here is to find ZT as the product divided by the sum for Z1 and Z2. A good way to start is to state each branch impedance in both rectangular and polar forms. Then Z1 and Z2 are Power Production Training

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ready for addition, multiplication, and division. The solution of this circuit follows: Z

5.66

The combined impedance Z 1 xZ

Use the polar form of Z1 and Z2 to multiply, but add in rectangular form: Z

53 x5.66

56.6

45 4

Converting the denominator to polar form for easier division, 10

10.8

Then Z

56.6 T

10.8

8 22

Therefore Z

5.24

We can convert ZT into rectangular form. The R component is 5.24 x cos (-14°) or 5.24 x 0.97 = 5.08. Note that cos is positive in the first and fourth quadrants. The j component equals 5.24 x sin (-14°) or 5.24 x (-0.242) = -1.127. In rectangular form, then, Z

5. 0 8 - j1.27

Therefore, this series-parallel circuit combination is equivalent to 5.08 of R in series with 1.27 of XC. This problem can also be done in rectangular form by rationalizing the fraction for ZT. Practice Problems — Section 12 Refer to Figure 12. April, 2003 Page 272

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a. Add (6 + j8) + (4 - j4) for the sum of Z1 and Z2. b. Multiply for the 10 and Z2.

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53 x5.66

product of Z1

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Combining Complex Branch Currents An example with two branches is shown in Figure 13, to find IT. The branch currents can just be added in rectangular form for the total IT of parallel branches. This method corresponds to adding series impedances in rectangular form to find ZT. The rectangular form is necessary for the addition of phasors.

Figure 13 Fining IT For Two Complex Branch Currents in Parallel Adding the branch currents in Figure 13, IT

I1 (6

I2 j6)

j4)

j2 A

Note that I1 has +j for the +90° of capacitive current, while I2 has -j for inductive current. These current phasors have the opposite signs from their reactance phasors. In polar form the IT of 9 + j2 A is calculated as the phasor sum of the branch currents. IT

9 85

tan

9.22 2/9

A 0.22

12.53

Therefore, IT is 9 + j2 A in rectangular form or 9 .22 12 .53 A in polar form. The complex currents for any number of branches can be added in rectangular form.

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Practice Problems — Section 13 a. Find IT in rectangular form for I1 of 0 + j2 A and I2 of 4 + j3 A. b. Find IT in rectangular form for I1 of 6 + j7 A and I2 of 3 j9 A.

Parallel Circuit with Three Complex Branches Because the circuit in Figure 14 has more than two complex impedances in parallel, the method of branch currents is used. There will be several conversions between rectangular and polar form, since addition must be in rectangular form, but division is easier in polar form. The sequence of calculations is:

Figure 14 Finding ZT For Any Three Complex Impedances In Parallel 1. Convert each branch impedance to polar form. This is necessary for dividing into the applied voltage VA to calculate the individual branch currents. If VA is not given, any convenient value can be assumed. Note that VA has a phase angle of 0° because it is the reference. 2. Convert the individual branch currents from polar to rectangular form so that they can be added for the total line current. This step is necessary because the resistive and reactive components must be added separately.

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3. Convert the total line current from rectangular to polar form for dividing into the applied voltage to calculate ZT. 4. The total impedance can remain in polar form with its magnitude and phase angle, or can be converted to rectangular form for its resistive and reactive components. These steps are used in the following calculations to solve the circuit in Figure 14. All the values are in A, V, or units. Branch Impedances Each Z is converted from rectangular form to polar form: Z

j50

70.7

j30

j40

Branch Currents Each I is calculated at VA divided by Z in polar form: I1

100

70.7

100

37 100

1.414

2.00

1.6

j1.2

2.00

1.2

j1.6

The polar form of each I is converted to rectangular form, for addition of the branch currents. Total Line Current In rectangular form, IT = I 1 + I 2 + I 3 = (1 + j1) + (1.6 - j1.2) + (1.2 - j1.6) = 1 + 1.6 + 1.2 + j1 - j1.2 - j1.6 IT = 3.8 - j1.8 Converting 3.8 - j1.8 into polar form,

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4.2

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25.4

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Total Impedance In polar form,

Converting

23.8

25.4

IT 23.8

100 4.2

25.4

into rectangular form, ZT = 21.5 + j10.2

Therefore, the complex ac circuit in Figure 14 is equivalent to the combination of 21.5 of R in series with 10.2 of XL. This problem can also be done by combining Z1 and Z2 in parallel as Z1Z2/(Z1 + Z2). Then combine this value with Z3 in parallel to find the total ZT of the three branches. Practice Problems — Section 14 Refer to Figure 14. a. State Z2 in rectangular form for branch 2. b. State Z2 in polar form c. Find I2.

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Summary 1. In complex numbers, resistance R is a real term and reactance is a j term. Thus, an 8- R is 8; an 8- XL is j8; an 8- XC is -j8. The general form of a complex impedance with series resistance and reactance then is Z = R ± jX, in rectangular form. 2. The same notation can be used for series voltages where V = VR ± jVX. 3. For branch currents IT = IR ± jIX, but the reactive branch currents have signed opposite from impedances. Capacitive branch current is jIC, while inductive branch current is -jIL. 4. The complex branch currents are added in rectangular form for any number of branches to find IT. 5. To convert from rectangular to polar form: R ± jX = Z . The 2 2 magnitude of Z is R X . Also, is the angle with tan = X/R. 6. To convert to polar to rectangular form, Z = R ± jX, where R is Z cos and the j term is Z sin . A positive angle has a positive j term; a negative angle has a negative j term. Also, the angle is more than 45° for a j term larger than the real term; the angle is less than 45° for a j term smaller than the real term. 7. The rectangular form must be used for addition or subtraction of complex numbers. 8. The polar form is usually more convenient in multiplying and dividing complex numbers. For multiplication, multiply the magnitudes and add the angles; for division, divide the magnitudes and subtract the angles. 9. To find the total impedance ZT of a series circuit, and all the resistances for the real term and find the algebraic sum of the reactances for the j term. The result is ZT = R ± jX. Then convert ZT to polar form for dividing into the applied voltage to calculate the current. 10. To find the total impedance ZT of two complex branch impedances Z1 and Z2 in parallel, ZT can be calculated as Z1Z2/(Z1 + Z2).

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Self-Examination Match the values in the column at the left with those at the right.

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24 + j5 + 16 + j10

24 - j5 + 16 - j10

j12 x 4

1200 - j800

j12 x j4

40 + j15

j12 ÷ j3

90 + j60 V

(4 + j2) x (4 - j2)

1200

5 A of IR + 7 A of IC

90 V of VR + 60 V of VL

j48

10.

28 x

-48

11.

5 + j7 A

12.

4 2 x3

13.

- 75 x4

40 - j15

of R + 800

22 2

22 0 30

of XC

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50 6

42 45

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Essay Questions 1. Give the mathematical operator for the angles of 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, and 360°. 2. Define the sine, cosine, and tangent functions of an angle. 3. How are mathematical operators similar for logarithms, exponents, and angles? 4. Compare the following combinations: resistance R and conductance G, reactance X and susceptance B, impedance Z and admittance Y. 5. What are the units for admittance Y and susceptance B? 6. Why do ZT and I1 for a circuit have angles with opposite signs?

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Problems 1. State Z in rectangular form for the following series circuits: (a) 4- R and 3- XC; (b) 4- R and 3- XL; (c) 3- R and 6- XL; (d) 3- R and 3- XC. 2. Draw the schematic diagrams for the impedances in Prob. 1. 3. Convert the following impedances to polar form: (a) 4 - j3; (b) 4 + j3; (c) 3 + j; (d) 3 - j3. 4. Convert the following impedances to rectangular form: (a) 5 27 ; (b) 5 27 ; (c) 6 .71 63 . 4 ; (d) 4 . 24 45 . 5. Find the total ZT in rectangular form for the following three series impedances: (a) 12 10 ; (b) 2 5 15 ; (c) 34 26 . 6. Multiply the following, in polar form: (a) 45 45 24 x10 54 ; (c) 18 64 x4 14 ; (d) 18

24 x10

64 x4

7. Divide the following, in polar form: (a) 45 24 45 24 10 10ˆ ; (c) 500 72 5 12 ; (d) 500 72 5 12 .

; (b) .

14 10

; (b)

8. Match the four phasor diagrams in Figure 4a, b, c, and d with the four circuits in Figs. 5 and 6. 9. Find ZT in polar form for the series circuit in Figure 7a. 10. Find ZT in polar form for the series-parallel circuit in Figure 7c. 11. Solve the circuit in Figure 12 to find ZT in rectangular form by rationalization. 12. Solve the circuit in Figure 12 to find ZT in polar form, using the method of branch currents. Assume an applied voltage of 56.6 V. 13. Show the equivalent series circuit of Figure 12. 14. Solve the circuit in Figure 14 to find ZT in polar form, without using branch currents. (Find the Z of two branches in parallel; then combine this Z with the third branch Z.) 15. Show the equivalent series circuit of Figure 14.

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16. Refer to Figure 13, (a) Find Z1 and Z2 for the two branch currents given. (b) Calculate the values needed for R1, R2, XC, and XL for these impedances. (c) What are the L and C values for a frequency of 60 Hz? 17. Solve the series ac circuit in Figure 8 in the previous chapter by the use of complex numbers. Find Z , I , and each V . Prove that the sum of the complex voltage drops around the circuit equals the applied voltage VT. Make a phasor diagram showing all phase angles with respect to VT. 18. The following components are in series: L = 100 H, C = 20 pF, R = 2000 . At the frequency of 2 MHz calculate XL, XC, ZT, I, , VR, VL, and VC. The applied VT = 8 V. 19. Solve the same circuit as in Prob., 18 for the frequency of 4 MHz. Give three effects of the higher frequency. 20. In Figure 15, show that ZT = 4.8 and = 36.9° by (a) the method of branch currents; (b) calculating ZT as Z1Z2/(Z1 + Z2).

Figure 15 21. In Figure 16, find Z T by calculating Zbc of the parallel bank and combining with the series Zab.

Figure 16

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Answers to Practice Problems Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Section 4 Section 5 Section 6 Section 7 Section 8 Section 9 Section 10

Section 11 Section 12 Section 13 Section 14

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a. 0° b. 180° a. 90° b. -90 or 270° a. T b. T a. j3 k b. -j5 mA a. 4 + j7 b. 0 - j7 a. 5 + j7 b. 4 + j6 a. 14.14 b. 45° a. 12 50 10 b. 3 a. 10 + j10 b. 10 - j10 a. 53° b. 143° c. 90° a. (6 + j8)/(5 + j4) b. (6 - j8)/(5 - j4) a. 10 + j4 b. 56 .6 8 a. 4 + j5 A b. 9 - j2 A a. 40 + j30 b. 50 37 37 A c. 2

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Solutions to Odd Numbered Problems 1. (a) 4 - j3 (b) 4 + j3 (c) 3 + j6 (d) 3 - j3 3. (a) 5 37 (b) 5 37 (c) 3 .18 18 .5 45 (D) 4 . 25 5. ZT = 65.36 + J23.48 7. (A) 4 .5 14 (b) 4 .5 34 84 (c) 100 60 (d) 100 9. ZT = 12 .65 18 .5 14 . 7 11. ZT = 5 .25 13. R = 5.08 XC = 1.27 15. R = 21.4 XL = 10.2 37 = 40 - j30 17. ZT = 50 I = 2 37 = 1.6 + j1.2 A VR = 80 37 = 64 + j48V VL = 120 127 = -72 + j96 V 53 = 108 - j144 V VC = 180 14 . 6 k 19. ZT = 2.07 k 14 . 6 mA I = 3.88 mA 21. ZT = 13 . 4 46 .5

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